Engaging internal and external audiences to develop and promote zoo-based conservation efforts.

As place-based conservation organizations, zoos are in a central position to support individuals in making small changes in their lives that will support the protection of wildlife and their habitats. This paper describes the secondary analysis of data collected from multi-phase front-end, exploratory evaluation that informed the development of a conservation action campaign in association with a non-profit, urban zoo. In phase one, internal organization staff were invited to attend workshops during which they brainstormed potential conservation actions that they felt were important for the zoo to promote. They identified and ranked 164 unique actions. In phase two, the ranking was used to narrow down the 164 actions to 20 actions which were used to develop a survey administered to visitors who opted in to receiving online surveys from the zoo. The survey asked participants to state their interest in each of the 20 conservation actions. The Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change informed the analysis of responses. Through this approach we identified actions that people were already doing, interested in doing, and not interested in doing. The responses from this survey were used to narrow down the list further to 10 actions used in a survey in phase three. This second survey administered to zoo visitors on grounds asked participants which of the 10 actions they would be most interested in doing, and the perceived barriers and benefits of doing them. This process allowed us to use evidence-based decision making to choose which conservation actions would resonate most with the community for our conservation action campaign. We also were able to identify values visitors held that might influence environmentally friendly behaviors. Visitors who responded to this survey tended to respond in ways that aligned with self-transcendent values. The research suggests that the campaign should focus on habitat restoration and remediation and purchasing wildlife friendly coffee and other products.

The effects of preformed vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoid supplementation on tadpoles of the poison frog Phyllobates vittatus.

Understanding the nutritional requirements of captive animals is necessary for proper animal husbandry, however, the specific dietary requirements for many amphibian species commonly kept in captivity are unknown. Like most vertebrates, frogs cannot synthesize carotenoids and must therefore obtain these essential nutrients through diet. It is unclear if amphibians can cleave provitamin A carotenoids to form vitamin A metabolically within the body, so common practice is to supplement their captive diets with both preformed vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids. We carried out a feeding experiment in tadpoles of Phyllobates vittatus, a commonly kept poison frog species, to test the effects of supplementing a fish flake diet with a provitamin A carotenoid (2.5 mg/g ß-carotene) and vitamin A (0.033-0.066 µg/mL retinyl acetate), both individually and in combination. Contrary to our expectations, supplementation had either no effect or adverse effects on tadpole growth and survivorship. Tadpoles reared under supplemented diets with vitamin A showed higher mortality rates, coupled with symptoms of hypervitaminosis A. Survivors had a smaller body size and mass at metamorphosis. ß-carotene supplementation alone had no detectable effect. The vitamin A and ß-carotene levels in our supplemented diet have been shown to be harmless or benefit tadpoles of other species, yet our results indicate that adding these amounts to what is found in a generalist fish flake mix can have detrimental effects on P. vittatus tadpoles. More broadly, this study highlights the importance of creating husbandry guidelines based on the specific physiological needs of the species (or species groups) being kept in captivity, rather than general ones for all amphibians, as is often done.

Endoscopy and rectal enema for fecal collection in wild sea turtles (Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata) in a field setting.

Forty-seven free-ranging sea turtles (46- Chelonia mydas, 1- Eretmochelys imbricata) were examined via novel use of an endoscopy combined with a rectal enema to obtain large fecal sample volumes. The cloaca was insufflated using an endoscope, after which the bladder and rectum separated, allowing access to the colon. Environmental conditions and location influenced the performance of the procedure initially, but after several attempts the procedure was successfully initiated. In all cases, fecal samples were obtained, and the animals were released to their respective locations. Fecal sample collection using this approach enhances the ability to obtain diagnostic information and perform other scientific analyses of sea turtles.

A cross-over dietary intervention in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus): Investigating the effects of glycine supplementation on blood parameters.

Captive cheetahs are prone to unusual diseases which may be attributed to their high muscle meat, collagen deficient captive diet. Glycine is a simple amino acid that is abundant in collagen rich tissues and has many physiological functions, specifically in collagen synthesis and in the conjugation of detrimental by-products produced during gut bacterial fermentation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a 4 week glycine supplementation on the body measurements, haematology and serum blood parameters of 10 captive cheetahs using a randomised controlled cross-over design. This approach has not yet been used to investigate the effect of diet in captive cheetahs. Cheetahs were randomly assigned to a control diet (horse meat only) or a glycine diet (30 g glycine per 1 kg meat) for 4 weeks before being crossed over. Blood was collected at baseline and after each intervention. The glycine diet resulted in a decreased serum albumin, alkaline phosphatase and total calcium concentration and increases in eosinophils and basophils counts compared to the control diet. Body weight also decreased on the glycine diet which may be due to increased ß-oxidation and fat loss. This was the first study to investigate the effect of glycine supplementation, which resulted in slight body and blood changes, in captive cheetahs using a cross-over design and this approach should be utilised for future dietary studies.

Residual tissue magnesium concentration in jellyfish (Aurelia aurita and Cassiopea andromeda) following magnesium chloride euthanasia.

Magnesium chloride in high concentration is used for euthanasia of jellyfish to limit overpopulation and for predatory species consumption, but its use could lead to magnesium bioaccumulation and subsequent negative effects in consumers. Two species of scyphozoan jellyfish (Cassiopea andromeda and Aurelia aurita) were subjected to freezing (control), or magnesium chloride baths (144 g/L), with subsequent 30 min baths (one or two) in fresh artificial saltwater and submitted for inductively coupled plasma analysis to determine tissue concentration. Frozen jellyfish consistently yielded the lowest magnesium concentrations, while magnesium chloride euthanized individuals contained the highest concentrations in both species. C. andromeda displayed a significantly higher (p < .05) magnesium absorption capacity than A. aurita in both trials. Single and double baths significantly decreased magnesium concentrations (p < .05) in both species, however, magnesium remained consistently elevated compared to frozen specimens. This study demonstrated species-specific magnesium accumulation in jellyfish posteuthanasia and that rinsing was an effective method to limit excessive magnesium that could be deleterious to animals in public display aquaria. Magnesium concentrations of tissue and receiving water should be tested if magnesium chloride euthanasia is utilized for dietary supplementation in small bodies of water.

Measuring the effectiveness of using rangers to deliver a behavior change campaign on sustainable palm oil in a UK zoo.

A fundamental objective of modern zoos is promoting pro-environmental behaviors. This study experimentally assessed the contribution of zoo rangers (staff employed to engage visitors) in delivering a behavior change campaign promoting sustainable palm oil use. The campaign was delivered in a dedicated area in a walk-through animal exhibit, with rangers either "present" or "absent" in the campaign space. Questionnaires assessing awareness, knowledge, and purchasing intentions were completed by 1032 visitors. Two analyses were conducted: (1) comparing the impact of ranger presence versus absence (to assess the overall impact of having rangers present regardless of whether they talked to visitors) and (2) comparing the impact of talking to a ranger against demographically matched individuals visiting when rangers were absent (to assess the specific impact of talking to a ranger). Visitors who talked to rangers were more aware of palm oil, had more knowledge, and greater intentions of purchasing sustainable palm oil. However, as only one-quarter of visitors talked to a ranger, fewer differences were found comparing ranger presence versus absence. These findings suggest that rangers can be instrumental in communicating complex conservation issues and delivering zoo-based behavior change campaigns, but their impact is limited by low engagement rates.

Differing animal welfare conceptions and what they mean for the future of zoos and aquariums, insights from an animal welfare audit.

Animal welfare is a growing public concern that has the potential to undermine the social license of zoos and aquariums. The lack of consensus on how animal welfare is defined across such a diverse sector combined with and a widespread belief that commercial priorities such as entertaining visitors conflicts with animal welfare, hinders efforts to effectively address this fundamental issue for the sector. Data derived from an audit of habitats across a major North American wildlife attraction revealed that holistic animal welfare assessments undertaken by animal carers embracing three principal constructs of animal welfare, correlated strongly with visitor perceptions of animal happiness. Visitor assessments of animal happiness also correlated with animal carer assessments of social, behavioural and locomotor opportunities and inversely with the prevalence of stereotypic behaviours, supporting the proposition that folk conceptions of animal welfare are more accurate than may have previously been considered to be the case. However, the holistic animal welfare assessment inversely correlated with assessments of a habitat's capacity to safeguard welfare as determined by the facility's veterinary staff, supporting the proposition that tensions exist between physical and psychological components of captive animal welfare provisioning. This further underlines the importance of clarity on how animal welfare is conceived when developing institutional animal welfare strategies. Finally, the data also showed that both holistic animal welfare assessments and visitor perceptions of animal happiness strongly correlated with the level of enjoyment experienced by visitors, challenging the belief that animal welfare competes with the commercial priorities of zoos and aquariums. The audit supports the case that maintaining high animal welfare is a commercial imperative as well as a moral obligation for zoos and aquariums and underlines the necessity to utilize conceptions of animal welfare that acknowledge the centrality of the affective states of animals in maintaining those standards.

Dietary lutein supplementation improves immunity and antioxidant status of captive Indian leopards (Panthera fusca).

Indian leopards kept in zoos are fed solely on carabeef on bone (CBB) diets. Carabeef contains lesser or no carotenoids. Hence, the captive Indian leopard diets are suspected to be deficient in carotenoids while their wild counterparts acquire these pigments from their natural prey. Lutein is a vital carotenoid that plays its role as an antioxidant and immunomodulator. This experiment investigates the effect of lutein supplementation on antioxidant status, immunity, and stress in captive Panthera fusca fed CBB diets. Nine leopards were used based on 3 × 3 replicated Latin square designs in the experiment. Groups CON, LUT20, and LUT40 were supplemented with 0, 20, and 40 ppm of lutein, respectively. Each experiment comprised of 10 days of wash-out period, 11 days of adaptation, and 4 days of collection. Digestibility of crude protein (CP) was higher (p < .01) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Serum concentration of protein, globulin, urea (p < .05), total carotenoids, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), catalase (CAT) activity, and lymphocyte transformation test (LTT) index were higher (p < .001) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and serum concentration of immunoglobulin were higher (p < .001) in group LUT20. Serum concentration of malonaldehyde (MDA) and fecal concentration of cortisol decreased (p < .001) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Serum concentration of total immunoglobulin (µg/ml) and LTT were higher in group LUT20. Fecal concentration of cortisol (ng/g) was lower in LUT20 and LUT40. The study concludes that supplementation of lutein at 20 ppm would improve antioxidant status and immunity and alleviate stress in captive Indian leopards.

Cane toad (Rhinella marina) vitamin A, vitamin E, and carotenoid kinetics.

Many amphibian species are threatened with extinction. Understanding their vitamin A (retinol), E (alpha-tocopherol), and carotenoid requirements is vital, as normal levels of these nutrients have a known connection to breeding success with abnormal levels leading to disease. This research examined vitamins A, E, and carotenoids (apocarotenoid, beta-carotene; beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and esters) concentration kinetics in the liver and plasma of 65 (57.8) cane toads (Rhinella marina) over 4 months supplemented with commercially available invertebrates in human care. Cane toads were opportunistically collected as part of a population control program for use as an amphibian model species. Toads were randomly assigned to one of two diets: treatment 1 was brown house crickets (Acheta domesticus) consuming Mazuri® Hi Calcium Gut Loading Diet without vitamin A or E supplement, plus fresh raw vegetables (carrot/sweet potato); Treatment 2 was the same diet except no vegetables. Ten toads were euthanized on Day 0 to analyze baseline free-ranging liver and plasma metabolites. Six toads consuming each treatment were euthanized on Days 22, 50, and 81, and n = 7 on Day 119 for analysis. Regardless of dietary treatment, most liver and blood metabolites were substantially higher at time 0 than all time points thereafter (p < .05); Ex: liver vitamin A at time 0 was 87.7 ± 16.12 µg/g while Day 119 for treatments 1 and 2 were 11.6 ± 1.19 and 8.2 ± 0.74, respectively. Few statistically significant differences between diets at the same time point were noted (p < .05). The results from this study indicate that additional or alternative diet supplementation may be needed for cane toads (and potentially other amphibians) to mimic their free-ranging diets.

Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism and Fibrous Osteodystrophy in a Captive African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus) Similar to Osteomalacia in Poultry.

A 9-yr-old female black-footed African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) was presented for necropsy after a history of reproductive abnormalities, paresis of limbs, weakness, and sudden death. Postmortem examination revealed soft keel, collapsed rib cage with beading of the ribs, and bilateral parathyroid enlargement. Classic histologic lesions of fibrous osteodystrophy with osteomalacia were observed in the ribs, vertebrae, and to a lesser extent in the femur and tibiotarsus associated with hyperplasia of parathyroid glands. This represents the first report of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in birds of the order Spheniciformes, most likely caused by low levels of calcium supplementation during egg laying. The reproductive abnormalities observed in this penguin and others from the same group (asynchronous egg-laying cycles, abnormal breeding behavior) were most likely exacerbated by the lack of an adequate photoperiod mimicking the natural daylight pattern.

Reporte de caso­Hiperparatiroidismo secundario nutricional y osteodistrofia fibrosa en un pingüino africano (Spheniscus demersus) en cautiverio similar a la osteomalacia observada en de aves de corral. Una hembra de pingüino africano de patas negras (Spheniscus demersus) de nueve años fue sometida a necropsia después de un historial de anomalías reproductivas, paresia de extremidades, debilidad y muerte súbita. El examen post mortem reveló que la quilla del esternón estaba blanda, la caja torácica colapsada, se observaron "perlas raquíticas" en las costillas y agrandamiento bilateral de las paratiroides. Se observaron lesiones histológicas clásicas de osteodistrofia fibrosa con osteomalacia en las costillas, vértebras y en menor medida, en el fémur y tibiotarsus asociadas con hiperplasia de glándulas paratiroides. Esto representa el primer informe de hiperparatiroidismo secundario nutricional en un ave del orden Spheniciformes, muy probablemente causado por un bajo nivel de suplementos de calcio durante la producción de huevos. Las anomalías reproductivas observadas en este pingüino y otros del mismo grupo (ciclos de puesta de huevos asincrónicos, comportamiento de reproducción anormal) probablemente se vieron exacerbadas por la falta de un fotoperíodo adecuado que imitara el patrón de luz natural.

Magnesium concentration influences size and pulse rate in the upside-down jellyfish, Cassiopea andromeda.

Magnesium is involved in a variety of physiological processes in marine animals and is known to be deleterious in both excess and deficiency. The effects of magnesium concentration ranging from 700 mg/L (low), 1344 mg/L (control), and 2000 mg/L (high) on size and pulse rate in upside-down jellyfish (Cassiopea andromeda) medusae were examined in two separate 28-day trials. Exposure to low magnesium resulted in significantly (p < .05) higher pulse rates and decreased bell diameter and also produced oral arm degradation. Exposure to high magnesium resulted in significantly (p < .05) lower pulse rates and decreased bell diameter as well as oral arm cupping. In both low and high magnesium, almost all specimens changed color from pale blue on Day 1, to brown by Day 28, suggesting a loss of zooxanthellae. The decrease in bell diameter and color change was more pronounced and occurred more rapidly in low magnesium. The results of both trials demonstrate the deleterious effects of high and low magnesium on C. andromeda and emphasize the importance of monitoring magnesium concentration to maintain healthy display animals in public aquaria.

VITAMIN C DEFICIENCY-ASSOCIATED LESIONS IN A COLONY OF COMMON VAMPIRE BATS (DESMODUS ROTUNDUS) IN A ZOO FACILITY.

The Milwaukee County Zoo has housed common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) since 1973. The bats are fed defibrinated cow's blood supplemented with a liquid pediatric multivitamin. From July 2013 to May 2014, multiple deaths occurred in colony bats, including five juveniles with multiple bone fractures and failure of endochondral ossification, three adults with cerebellar necrosis, and one adult with subcutaneous hemorrhage. In November 2013, an adult bat developed a nonhealing left wing hematoma and eventually succumbed 9 mo later. A postmortem examination revealed multifocal extensive necrohemorrhagic and suppurative ulcerative dermatitis with no underlying cause determined. From July to December 2014, five of nine adult bats in the colony developed similar hematomas along with gingival bleeding. One euthanized bat had a serum ascorbic acid level of 0.08 mg/dl and marked generalized subcutaneous hemorrhage. A therapeutic trial was initiated in which two bats received defibrinated cow's blood supplemented only with oral vitamin C, 100 mg/kg PO q24h for 3 d, and then 50 mg/kg PO q24h. Two other bats received nonsupplemented defibrinated cow's blood and were given vitamin K 3.3 mg/kg SC q12h for 3 d, and then 3.3 mg/kg SC q24h for 7 d. The bats supplemented with vitamin C improved, supporting a diagnosis of vitamin C deficiency. All bats were subsequently supplemented with vitamin C leading to resolution of all lesions within 10 d to 2 mo. Vitamin C is necessary for collagen synthesis, which is required for proper wound healing, capillary and cartilage strength, osteoid production, and pial membrane formation of the cerebellum. Several bat species cannot synthesize vitamin C and require a dietary source. This is the first report of vitamin C deficiency in a colony of vampire bats leading to severe chronic subcutaneous hemorrhage, bone fragility, microfractures, cerebellar necrosis, and death.

Effect of topical ozonated sunflower oil on second intention wound healing in turtles: a randomised experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Ozone is an antimicrobial agent that in experimental and case-control studies has been found to exert a positive effect on wound healing. Wild and pet chelonians frequently present insidious wounds exhibiting secondary infections and/or delayed healing. OBJECTIVES: Evaluate the effects of topical ozonated sunflower oil on second-intention healing of acute experimental skin wounds in red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). METHODS: Randomised within-subject controlled study; Group 1 (n = 24) was used to assess clinical healing features; Group 2 (n = 12) was used for histological evaluation in which two sets of wounds were biopsied at 2, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 42 days over the course of the cicatrisation process. A single 6 mm diameter wound was made on each rear limb and topical ozonated (950 peroxide value) and non-ozonated sunflower oil were applied daily for one week on treated and contralateral control wounds, respectively. RESULTS: Mean wound size was significantly lower in the ozone-treated group at day 28 (p < 0.0001) with differences of clinical relevance (74.04% vs. 93.05% reduction of initial wound size). Histologically, the acute inflammatory reaction was enhanced in treated wounds, with significantly higher numbers of heterophils (p = 0.0016), lymphocytes (p < 0.001) and fibroblasts (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Daily topical application of ozonated sunflower oil over the course of one week improved the healing of acute, full-thickness skin wounds in chelonians. This clinical outcome was histologically correlated with an enhanced acute inflammatory reaction, as well as the production and remodelling of collagen fibres.

Observations on spindly leg syndrome in a captive population of Andinobates geminisae.

Amphibian health problems of unknown cause limit the success of the growing number of captive breeding programs. Spindly leg syndrome (SLS) is one such disease, where affected individuals with underdeveloped limbs often require euthanization. We experimentally evaluated husbandry-related factors of SLS in a captive population of the critically endangered frog, Andinobates geminisae. SLS has been linked to tadpole nutrition, vitamin B deficiency, water filtration methods, and water quality, but few of these have been experimentally tested. We tested the effects of water filtration method and vitamin supplementation (2017) and the effects of tadpole husbandry protocol intensity (2018) on time to metamorphosis and the occurrence of SLS. We found that vitamin supplementation and reconstituted reverse osmosis filtration of tadpole rearing water significantly reduced SLS prevalence and that reduced tadpole husbandry delayed time to metamorphosis. A fortuitous accident in 2018 resulted in a decrease in the phosphate content of rearing water, which afforded us an additional opportunity to assess the influence of phosphate on calcium sequestration. We found that tadpoles that had more time to sequester calcium for ossification during development had decreased the prevalence of SLS. Taken together, our results suggest that the qualities of the water used to rear tadpoles plays an important role in the development of SLS. Specifically, filtration method, vitamin supplementation, and calcium availability of tadpole rearing water may play important roles. Focused experiments are still needed, but our findings provide important information for amphibian captive rearing programs affected by high SLS prevalence.

Inflammatory and oxidative status in European captive black rhinoceroses: A link with Iron Overload Disorder?

Iron Overload Disorder (IOD) is a syndrome developed by captive browsing rhinoceroses like black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis), in which hemosiderosis develops in vital organs while free iron accumulates in the body, potentially predisposing to various secondary diseases. Captive grazing species like white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) do not seem to be affected. The authors hypothesized that inflammation and oxidative stress may be implicated in the pathogenesis of IOD in captive black rhinoceroses, making this syndrome a potential common denominator to various diseases described in captivity in this species. In this prospective study, 15 black (BR) and 29 white rhinoceroses (WR) originating from 22 European zoos were blood-sampled and compared for their iron status (serum iron), liver/muscle biochemical parameters (AST, GGT, cholesterol), inflammatory status (total proteins, protein electrophoresis) and oxidative stress markers (SOD, GPX, dROMs). Results showed higher serum iron and liver enzyme levels in black rhinoceroses (P < 0.01), as well as higher dROMs (P < 0.01) and a trend for higher GPX (P = 0.06) levels. The albumin/globulin ratio was lower in black rhinoceroses (P < 0.05) due to higher α2-globulin levels (P < 0.001). The present study suggests a higher inflammatory and oxidative profile in captive BR than in WR, possibly in relation to iron status. This could be either a consequence or a cause of iron accumulation. Further investigations are needed to assess the prognostic value of the inflammatory and oxidative markers in captive black rhinoceroses, particularly for evaluating the impact of reduced-iron and antioxidant-supplemented diets.

Polyarthritis Caused by Acinetobacter kookii in a Rothschild's Giraffe Calf (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi).

We report the first isolation of Acinetobacter kookii from a Rothschild's giraffe calf (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) that had severe polyarthritis. The isolate was resistant to more than one representative of each of four classes of antibiotics (penicillins, macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines). As A. kookii has not been previously associated with disease in humans or animals, it may be an emerging opportunistic pathogen posing a threat to immunocompromised patients. Furthermore, as transmission of Acinetobacter spp. with similar patterns of antimicrobial resistance has been previously reported in human and animal populations, special care should be taken when handling infected animals.

Circulating nutrients and hematological parameters in managed African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) over a 1-year period.

African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are currently considered a vulnerable species. One key to improving methods of species management is to better monitor and understand elephant nutrition. Analyzing circulating nutrients is one of the best and least invasive methods of monitoring managed elephant nutrition, but limited reference values are available. This study examined the circulating basic hematology concentrations, minerals, vitamins A, D, and E, and fatty acids of six African elephants (two males and four females) at the North Carolina Zoo collected monthly from March 2016 to April 2017 and compared levels among seasons. Creatinine (CRE) and albumin had seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, and molybdenum displayed seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Retinol and 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 had seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, total omega-3 fatty acids, total omega-6 fatty acids, and the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio showed seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Findings suggest that exogenous vitamin E supplements may not be necessary with a mixed feedstuff diet (hay, fortified concentrate pellet, browse, and produce) based on circulating values. This data offer updated information on circulating reference values and novel circulating concentrations of nutrients for Southeastern US managed African elephants that can be used to inform nutritional and health management in all similar habitats.

THE VITAMIN D STATUS OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) MANAGED IN A NORTHERN TEMPERATE CLIMATE.

Knowledge about the normal metabolism and involvement of vitamin D in elephant calcium homeostasis is essential to understanding the possible role of vitamin D in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) health, as well as to informing accurate diet formulation. This study provides an evaluation of analytes involved in vitamin D metabolism, in conjunction with dietary intake and ultraviolet light (UV) exposure, in Asian elephants managed in a northern temperate climate. Once monthly, for a total of 12 mo, serum from six adult Asian elephants was analyzed for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [24,25(OH)2D], 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D], parathyroid hormone (PTH), total calcium (Ca), ionized calcium (iCa), phosphorus (P), and magnesium (Mg). The diet was analyzed monthly for vitamin D, Ca, and P. Monthly average vitamin D-weighted UV daily sums were determined to gauge average UV light exposure within the vitamin D action spectrum. No serum or diet parameters were affected by time or season. Average serum 25(OH)D2 was 7.02 ± 0.85 ng/ml. 25(OH)D3 levels were nondetectable in all samples despite supplementation of the diet with recommended levels of vitamin D3, and UV exposure was at sufficient levels for cutaneous vitamin D synthesis for 6 mo of the year. Levels of 24,25(OH)2D averaged 31.7% higher than 25(OH)D, and average 1,25(OH)2D2 was 11.24 ± 1.04 pg/ml. Values for PTH, Ca, iCa, P, and Mg were within expected ranges for Asian elephants. The information gained from this research expands the knowledge base for these analytes, evaluates 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D for the first time, and provides new information regarding vitamin D metabolism and test interpretation in the Asian elephant.

ORAL HALOPERIDOL PREMEDICATION TO REDUCE CAPTURE STRESS PRIOR TO XYLAZINE-KETAMINE ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE SPOTTED DEER (AXIS AXIS).

A prospective clinical trial was performed to evaluate the efficacy of haloperidol premedication prior to xylazine-ketamine anesthesia with a goal of reducing capture stress in adult male captive spotted deer (Axis axis). On the morning of the study, deer were fed a banana either containing haloperidol tablets (1 mg/kg) (haloperidol group, n = 10) or without haloperidol (placebo group, n = 10). Six hours postadministration, xylazine (3 mg/kg) and ketamine (2 mg/kg) was administered intramuscularly via a dart. Rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and SpO2 (percent hemoglobin saturation) were recorded at 5-min intervals. Blood gas analysis was performed at time 0 (venous blood) and 10 and 20 min (arterial blood) postinduction. Serum cortisol was determined from venous blood (35 min postinduction), following which yohimbine was administered at a dose of 0.15 mg/kg intramuscular and 0.15 mg/kg intravenous. Statistical analysis of repeated measures data was performed with a two-way analysis of variance. Paired data were analyzed with a Wilcoxon rank-sum test (categorical data) or a paired t-test (continuous data). Significance was set at P ≤ 0.05, and results were expressed as mean ± SEM. There was no significant difference in induction time or recovery time between treatment groups. Rectal temperature and heart rate were significantly lower in the haloperidol group. Both groups demonstrated acidosis with venous pH being significantly lower in the placebo group when compared to the haloperidol group. Serum cortisol and arterial plasma lactate were lower in the haloperidol group indicative of reduced stress and physical exertion. Haloperidol premedication proved to be beneficial in reducing capture stress, when administered prior to xylazine-ketamine anesthesia, in spotted deer.

Thermal burns of the spectacle associated with supplementary heating in native New Zealand geckos.

Case history: Gradual onset of ocular opacity was observed in three gold-striped geckos (Woodworthia chrysosiretica), and five Pacific geckos (Dactylocnemis pacificus) held in two adjacent terrariums in a zoological institution located in the North Island of New Zealand. Ultraviolet light and heat had been provided for the previous 3-4 years by a fluorescent bulb, but in the last 4 weeks of winter a ceramic heat bulb had been added, situated 10 cm above the upper mesh of the cageClinical findings: All eight geckos presented with mostly bilateral lesions of varying severity confined to the central or upper quadrant of the spectacles. These lesions ranged from variable areas of opacity within the stroma of the spectacle to similarly distributed ulcers of the surface epithelium of both spectacles. The spectacle lesions in the Pacific geckos responded well to treatment with topical combined antimicrobial therapy, within 18-29 days. The gold-striped geckos suffered complications including dysecdysis, severe spectacle ulceration and perforation, mycotic spectaculitis, and widespread mycotic dermatitis resulting in death or leading to euthanasia.Pathological findings: In the three gold-striped geckos, there were extensive areas of deep ulceration and replacement of the spectacle with a thick serocellular crust containing large numbers of fungal elements. The affected areas of the stroma were expanded by large deposits of proteinaceous and mucinous material, pyknotic cellular debris and moderate numbers of heterophils and macrophages as well as infiltrating fungal hyphae.Diagnosis: Mycotic spectaculitis with ulceration and perforation, and disseminated mycotic dermatitis likely secondary to thermal burns.Clinical relevance: This is the first report of thermal burns of the spectacle in any reptile. There was species variation in the burn severity with gold-striped geckos showing more severe lesions, possibly due to a mix of behavioural and anatomical factors. The thermal burns to the spectacles in three cases were complicated by delayed healing, perforation, dysecdysis and severe mycotic infection.