[The disease and treatment of the frontline soldiers in Han dynasty].

This paper purports to identify and analyze the medical information of the frontline soldiers in the Northwest borderland provinces of Han Dynasty, especially Juyan and Dunhuang region, through an heuristic reading of the Juyan Bamboo Slips and the Dunhuang Bamboo Slips of the Han Dynasty. My findings are as follows. The most frequent disease found in the bamboo slips was the external injury. The injury of the frontline soldiers mainly occurred from the quarrels among armed soldiers using weapons. The bamboo slips also demonstrate that the quarrels usually arose due to the fierce tension caused by the frontier line service such as heavy guard activity and labour duty. Undernourishment and chronic stress the soldiers suffered might be another reasons. The second most common disease harassing the soldiers was exogenous febrile disease. In most cases reviewed in this paper, the exogenous febrile disease was usually concurrent with complex symptoms such as chills, fever, headache, etc. The bamboo slips show that the exogenous febrile disease was related to the harsh climate of the Northwest provinces, featuring extremely dry weather and the large magnitude of diurnal temperature fluctuations. In addition, the annual temperature range in the Northwest province was huge, fluctuating between very cold and dry winter and very hot and dry summer. The third most common disease this study identified was the disorder of the digestive system and respiratory system. However, these two types of disease were virtually indistinguishable in the bamboo slips, because the ancient Chinese chroniclers did not distinguish them, usually dubbing both diseases simply 'abdominal pain.' It should be mentioned that a few slips mention contagious disease such as dysentery and dermatolosis, and sudden death, as well. Overall, the bamboo slips demonstrate extremely poor status of the soldiers' heath condition and poor medical environment surrounding the soldiers stationing in the Northwest borderland military camps. The records also show that acupuncture, applying a plaster, drugs were the most common medical treatment. Drugs among them was the most frequently used. Whereas Acupuncture, applying a plaster were very rarely used. Medication has been used in three ways: powdered medicine, medicinal decoction and pill. Medicinal decoction was the most commonly used way.

The Disease and Treatment of the Frontline Soldiers in Han Dynasty / 의사학

This paper purports to identify and analyze the medical information of the frontline soldiers in the Northwest borderland provinces of Han Dynasty, especially Juyan and Dunhuang region, through an heuristic reading of the Juyan Bamboo Slips and the Dunhuang Bamboo Slips of the Han Dynasty. My findings are as follows. The most frequent disease found in the bamboo slips was the external injury. The injury of the frontline soldiers mainly occurred from the quarrels among armed soldiers using weapons. The bamboo slips also demonstrate that the quarrels usually arose due to the fierce tension caused by the frontier line service such as heavy guard activity and labour duty. Undernourishment and chronic stress the soldiers suffered might be another reasons. The second most common disease harassing the soldiers was exogenous febrile disease. In most cases reviewed in this paper, the exogenous febrile disease was usually concurrent with complex symptoms such as chills, fever, headache, etc. The bamboo slips show that the exogenous febrile disease was related to the harsh climate of the Northwest provinces, featuring extremely dry weather and the large magnitude of diurnal temperature fluctuations. In addition, the annual temperature range in the Northwest province was huge, fluctuating between very cold and dry winter and very hot and dry summer. The third most common disease this study identified was the disorder of the digestive system and respiratory system. However, these two types of disease were virtually indistinguishable in the bamboo slips, because the ancient Chinese chroniclers did not distinguish them, usually dubbing both diseases simply 'abdominal pain.' It should be mentioned that a few slips mention contagious disease such as dysentery and dermatolosis, and sudden death, as well. Overall, the bamboo slips demonstrate extremely poor status of the soldiers' heath condition and poor medical environment surrounding the soldiers stationing in the Northwest borderland military camps. The records also show that acupuncture, applying a plaster, drugs were the most common medical treatment. Drugs among them was the most frequently used. Whereas Acupuncture, applying a plaster were very rarely used. Medication has been used in three ways: powdered medicine, medicinal decoction and pill. Medicinal decoction was the most commonly used way.

[90th anniversary of "Przeglad Epidemiologiczny"]. / 90-lecie "Przegladu Epidemiologicznego".

For 90 years, from 1920 is published "Epidemiological Review," a scholarly journal devoted to the epidemiology and the prevention and control of infectious diseases, issued right from the beginning by the National Institute of Hygiene, and since 1958 jointly with the Medical Society of Epidemiologists and Physicians of Infectious Diseases. With the emergence of new threats, noncommunicable diseases and environmental hazards Przeglad expanded his thematic range also to these problems. 65 volumes of writings about Poland's history of accomplishments of epidemiology and its best experts and representatives. The paper presents the magazine in terms of editorial and publishing.

[Leprosy--a stigma in the 21st century]. / Lepra--stigma a XXI. században.

For the initiation of the French journalist Raoul Follereau in 1954 the UNO inaugurated the Leprosy Day (Martyr's Day) that is celebrated on the last Sunday of January every year. Although the bacterium that causes leprosy was isolated by the Norwegian scientist Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen in 1873 and from 1982 this disease can be cured with a special pharmaceutical complex, still 219.826 new leprous are detected on Earth every year, according to the data published in August, 2010 by WHO-experts. Ancient Chinese and Hindu source-strings from 600 B. C. are referring to leprosy, however, the disease was imported by the army of Alexander the Great from India around 327-326 B. C. Even the Old and the New Testament from the Holy Bible are mentioning leprosy in several details. During the Middle Ages the Military and Hospitaller Order of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem, established in the Holy Land in 72 A. D., did pioneer work in nursing leprous. In the process of time the medical attendance concerning leprous was organized in special hospitals called "leprosoriums" built on river-banks. Special office and even services were organized for the treatment and isolation of the people infected. Although medical science has prevailed against leprosy, and almost simultaneously even jurisprudence defended the patients' rights via legislation, still mankind can regrettably not get rid of this disease that stigmatizes seriously.

[Department of epidemiology of the National Institute of Hygiene in Warsaw in the years 1951-2011--origins of forming, developmental ways in 60 years of work]. / Zaklad Epidemiologii Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny w Warszawie w latach 1951-2011--geneza powstania, drogi rozwoju w ciagu 60 lat pracy.

The paper discussed the origins of forming in 1951 the Department of Epidemiology, National Institute of Hygiene in Poland and its subsequent tasks. Relating to the evolving tasks, changes in the organizational structure, professional profile of the staff, main professional challenges and scientific achievements are described in 10 years cycles. Successive chapters address: scientific careers of the Department staff and contribution to scientific development of the whole institute among others; teaching and training, mainly targeted at the epidemiological service staff in Poland; editorial and publishing activities.

[Were there infection disease specialists in Ancient Rome?]. / ¿Hubo infectólogos en la Antigua Roma?

The existence of infectious diseases specialists in Ancient Rome is unlikely, but there were at least three authors able of keen observations on infectious matters, with enough merit to be considered our predecessors: Varro, Columella and Vitruvius, none of them physicians. Varro, in his first Book on Agriculture recommended, "Build the houses distant from swamps, because certain minute creatures are bred which cannot be followed with the eyes but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose, giving rise to severe diseases". Also in a text of agriculture and in the same sense, Columella says "that with heat a swamp releases a pestilential vapor and produces a very dense swarm of insects, which come flying over us armed with harmful stings Vitruvius, the great architect was worried about drinkable water: its sources and properties, how to obtain it and the methods for testing its quality. The concern on its distribution and disposal of sewage started on 614 B.C., little after the foundation of Rome, with the building of the first aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia. This aqueduct in Trajan's times (century II A.D.), reached a total of 443 km, with 49,500 meters of arcades, which were up to 32 meters high, plus 2.4 km of an underground net. This system released 947,200 m(3) of water per day, two thirds of which were for public use and one third for private customers.

[Stanislawa Adamowiczowa--first editor in-chief of Journal "Przeglad Epidemiologiczny"]. / Stanislawa Adamowiczowa--pierwsza redaktorka "Przegladu Epidemiologicznego".

First issue of Epidemiological Review was published in 1920. First editor in chief was Stanislawa Adamowiczowa, PhD (1888-1965), who had worked in National Central Epidemiological Institute since 1919, and later, for period of 45 years, interrupted by breaks resulting from political situation, worked in National Institute of Hygiene. In this jubilee article, we present scientific resume of S. Adamowiczowa which focuses on her achievements in infectious diseases epidemiology, and particularly in analysis and evaluation of current epidemiological data distribution in Poland and worldwide in the period. She was the pioneer in systemic organization of registries of new cases of diseases in the highly populated Polish cities; she initiated use of statistical methods in this field. As editor in chief of Epidemiological Review, she started publishing Epidemiological Chronicle, which is continuously added as a supplement to every second issue, each year. Name of S. Adamowiczowa is associated with Ludwik Rajchman--director of Hygiene Section in League of Nations, with Witold Chodzko PhD--she led courses in National School of Hygiene in Warsaw, with prof. Marcin Kacprzak--as co-author and co-editor of books on hygiene and epidemiology. A brief list of scientific publications of S. Adamowiczowa is also presented.

¿Hubo infectólogos en la Antigua Roma? / Were there infections diseases specialists in the Ancient Rome?

The existence of infectious diseases specialists in Ancient Rome is unlikely, but there were at least three authors able of keen observations on infectious matters, with enough merit to be considered our predecessors: Varro, Columella and Vitruvius, none of them physicians. Varro, in his first Book on Agriculture recommended, "Build the houses distant from swamps, because certain minute creatures are bred which cannot be followed with the eyes but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose, giving rise to severe diseases". Also in a text of agriculture and in the same sense, Columella says "that with heat a swamp releases a pestilential vapor and produces a very dense swarm of insects, which come flying over us armed with harmful stings Vitruvius, the great architect was worried about drinkable water: its sources and properties, how to obtain it and the methods for testing its quality. The concern on its distribution and disposal of sewage started on 614 B.C., little after the foundation of Rome, with the building of the first aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia. This aqueduct in Trajan's times (century II A.D.), reached a total of 443 km, with 49,500 meters of arcades, which were up to 32 meters high, plus 2.4 Km. of an underground net. This system released 947.200 m3 of water per day, two thirds of which were for public use and one third for private customers.

Si mal pudo haber infectólogos en la Antigua Roma, hubo al menos intelectuales capaces de agudas observaciones en materia de infecciones, con merecimientos suficientes para postularse como nuestros predecesores: Varrón, Columela y Vitruvio, ninguno de ellos médico. Varrón, en el primero de sus Libros de Agricultura, recomendaba ubicar la casa evitando los pantanos, porque allí crecen ciertos animales, tan diminutos que no se pueden seguir con los ojos y flotan en el aire y entran al cuerpo por la boca y la nariz causando graves enfermedades. También en un texto de agricultura y en el mismo sentido, Columela dice que una laguna desprende con los calores un vapor pestilencial y produce enjambres espesísimos de insectos, que vienen volando sobre nosotros armados de aguijones dañinos... Vitruvio, el gran arquitecto, se ocupó del agua potable: sus fuentes y sus cualidades, cómo obtenerla y los métodos para probar su calidad. Esta preocupación por la distribución de aguas y disposición de excretas había nacido en el 614 A.C., poco después de la fundación de Roma, con la construcción del primer acueducto, el Aqua Marcia, para alcanzar en tiempos de Trajano (siglo II D.C.) un total de 443 km, con 49.500 metros de arcadas de hasta 32 metros de altura, más 2,4 km de red subterránea. Éstos entregaban 947.200 m³ por día, de los cuales dos tercios eran para uso público y un tercio privado.

[Variola: the history of a museal present plague]. / Variola: zur Geschichte einer museal präsenten Seuche.

Smallpox, once a major menace of humankind, is the only endemic anthroponosis that has completely disappeared due to organized human action. The history of variola and of the rationales of prevention and control associated with ancient variolation, modern vaccination and the surrounding research enterprises and sanitary regimes provide paradigmatic examples of the involvement of medical thought and scientific dynamics with natural and cultural necessities and technological evolution. Taking the form of a broad historiographic sketch this is discussed not only based on representative literature, but contemplating material relics of the medical endeavor with smallpox. The objects are maintained by the Austrian Federal Museum of Pathological Anatomy, located in the unique historic building known as Narrenturm or Fool's Tower in Vienna's traditional medical district. They range from textual documents to wet specimens recently reactivated for virological research. Special focus lies on waxen moulages, crafted in the context of early 20th century clinical research and teaching.

[Situation of epidemic prevention in the late Qing dynasty in Shanghai].

To study the implementation of the epidemic prevention by the authorities of the concession and late Qing dynasty through investigation of the prevention and treatment of pestilence in Shanghai from 1872 to 1911, this paper analyzes the issues concerning municipal administration, inspection and disinfection, food sanitation, vaccination, regulatory legislation and health promotion, etc. The experiences are summarized in the study. The lessons drawn from what the concession authority did to prevent pestilence imply that the implementation of health promotion should be carried out according to the variation of the time, location and population, and that traditional Chinese medicine should be involved in the prevention and treatment of pestilence.

[The role of the National Institute of Hygiene in historical perspective]. / Rola Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny w perspektywie historycznej.

The article presents the role of the National Institute of Hygiene, during the 90 years of its presence, in the struggle for health of the population. It underlines how the scope of action of the Institute was continuously adjusted in response to existing health treats and how the Institute contributed to detection of new risk factors. The main tasks of the Institute included prevention of disease and implementation of the most up-to-date developments in the country public health system.

[National Institute of Hygiene during the World War 1939-1944]. / Panstwowy Zaklad Higieny w czasie wojny w latach 1939-1944.

The article presents history of the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) in the period from September 1939 until the fall of Warsaw Uprising (1944). German occupation left unaltered activities, structure and Polish personnel of the Institute, enforcing commissoner board by professor Ernst Nauck, and subsequently--professor Robert Kudicke from Frankfurt. German production of vaccine against typhus exanthematous for German army was managed by German physician--Herman Wohlrab. National Institute of Hygiene was to be a place modelled on Institute for Tropical Diseases in Hamburg. Polish personnel was subject to military regime, however Feliks Przesmycki, PhD started underground production of vaccine against typhus exanthematous for Polish citizens, which was distributed to prisons (Pawiak Prison) and ghetto. Hospital personnel in Warsaw was also vaccinated. Underground studies programme, including editing handbooks, was set up for the students of closed Microbiology Faculty of Warsaw University, and other wartime conspiracy actions were taken. Personnel of National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) protected research equipment and supplies from war plundering, and supported Polish civilians by e.g. reporting about harmfulness of low-quality and polluted food for the Polish, which Germans supplied market with. During Warsaw Uprising Personnel helped the injured and protected the premises of National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) from burning down; mobile army surgical hospital and pharmacy for the participans of Warsaw Uprising functioned within PZH.

[Retrospect of tuberculosis control in Brazil]. / Retrospecto do controle da tuberculose no Brasil.

The aim of the study was to look back on the course of action involving measures of tuberculosis control in Brazil since the end of the 19th century, covering the history of social struggles and pointing out institutions and people that have dedicated themselves to looking for solutions to these issues. The Brazilian response to tuberculosis started in society with the Ligas Contra a Tuberculose (Leagues Against Tuberculosis), promoting scientific advances, such as the BCG vaccination, which begun in 1927. From the public power, the Inspetoria de Profilaxia da TB (TB Prophylaxis Inspection Service - 1920), the Serviço Nacional de Tuberculose (National Service of Tuberculosis - 1940), and the Campanha Nacional Contra a Tuberculose (National Campaign Against Tuberculosis - 1946), coordinated national policies such as chemotherapy, beginning with the discovery of streptomycin in 1944. The emergence of bacterial resistance led to the development of several therapeutic schemes. The Scheme 1 (rifampycin, hydrazide and pyrazinamid), which was the main one in 1979 and is still used nowadays, had a great epidemiological effect. The WHO declared TB a public health emergency in 1993. In response, Brazil developed some strategies; the first one was the Plano Emergencial para Controle da Tuberculose (Emergency Plan for Tuberculosis Control - 1994), prioritizing 230 municipalities. The current prospects are an effective municipalization of actions and their greater integration with the Programas de Agentes Comunitários e Saúde da Família (Humanitarian Agents and Family Health Programs).

Males y remedios de la ciudad moderna: perspectivas ambientales de la eugenesia argetina de entre guerras / Diseases and remedies in modern city: environmental perspectives of argentinian eugenism between the mundial wars

Durante el período de entreguerras se consolidó en Argentina una tendencia a patologizar la ciudad moderna, entendida como un organismo enfermo que producía y a su vez era consecuencia de la decadencia física y moral de sus habitantes. La interrupción de la inmigración externa aportó nuevos datos para una estrategia de regeneración que pugnó por establecer, desde la eugenesia, medidas dirigidas a articular el poblacionismo con la distribución territorial, en la certeza de que el campo contrarrestaría los males que generaba la vida moderna. El trabajo repasa el impacto de esta ideología en distintas esferas y el modo en que ella se recepcionó junto a la política cultural del fascismo y formó parte del corpus con el que la biotipología buscó darle legitimidad científica

During the inter - war period it consolidate in Argentina a tendency to pathologize the moderncity, understood like an ill organism that produced and was consequence phisical and moral decadency of its habitants. The interruption of external inmigration contributed with new information for a strategy of regeneration that tried to establish from eugenesics directed to articulate the populationism with the territorial distribution, in the certainty that counteracted country the evils that generated the life modern. The work reviews the impact of this ideology in the different spheres and the way in which has integrated the cultural politic of the fascism and taked part of the corpus with which the biotipology looked to give scientific legitimacy

Tifo, varíola e indigenismo: Manuel Núñez Butrón e a medicina rural em Puno, Peru / Typhus, smallpox and indigenism: Manuel Núñez Butrón and the rural medicine in Puno, Peru

Aborda as condições e as possibilidades da integração da medicina ocidental com a cultura indígena em programas de saúde pública no Peru. As ações do médico Manuel Núñez Butrón na década de 1930 na região de Puno são analisadas como uma possível e criativa articulação entre conhecimento médico moderno com a cultura e práticas indígenas, resultando no envolvimento comunitário e de povos indígenas em campanhas de educação, de combate ao tifo epidêmico e de vacinação antivariólica.

Tifo, varíola e indigenismo: Manuel Núñez Butrón e a medicina rural em Puno, Peru / Typhus, smallpox and indigenism: Manuel Núñez Butrón and the rural medicine in Puno, Peru

Aborda as condiçöes e as possibilidades da integraçäo da medicina ocidental com a cultura indígena em programas de saúde pública no Peru. As açöes do médico Manuel Núñez Butrón na década de 1930 na regiäo de Puno säo analisadas como uma possível e criativa articulaçäo entre conhecimento médico moderno com a cultura e práticas indígenas, resultando no envolvimento comunitário e de povos indígenas em campanhas de educaçäo, de combate ao tifo epidêmico e de vacinaçäo antivariólica.(AU)