A relação entre arte e vida em vigotski: uma análise conceitual / The relationship between art and life in vygotsky: a conceptual analysis / La relación entre arte y vida en vigotski: un análisis conceptual

Este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar a relação entre arte e vida segundo Vigotski. Para isso, foi realizada uma análise conceitual dos capítulos 1, 7, 9, 10 e 11 da Psicologia da Arte, do capítulo 13 da Psicologia Pedagógica e do texto O significado histórico da crise da Psicologia: Uma investigação metodológica. A pesquisa conceitual consiste na análise semântica dos principais conceitos de uma teoria com o intuito de elucidar seus sentidos ocultos ou confusos e desvendar possíveis contradições e ambiguidades no quadro teórico. Podemos observar que a arte é um fenômeno dialético tanto em sua criação como em seus efeitos. A influência da vida, isto é, da realidade sócio-histórica, na criação artística é indireta, pois ela é sempre mediada pelo psiquismo particular do artista. Já o efeito da arte sobre a vida possibilita que o ser humano se conscientize de sua realidade social e se engaje para mudá-la. A arte é, portanto, transformadora, pois reorganiza o psiquismo e possibilita uma mudança nas condições materiais dos seres humanos.(AU)

This study aims to analyze the relationship between art and life according to Vygotsky. Therefore, a conceptual analysis of chapters 1, 7, 9, 10, and 11 of Psychology of Art, chapter 13 of Educational Psychology and the text The Historical meaning of the Crisis of Psychology: A Methodological Investigation was carried out. Conceptual research consists of the semantic analysis of the main concepts of a theory to elucidate its hidden or confused meanings and to reveal possible contradictions and ambiguities in the theoretical framework. Results show that art is a dialectical phenomenon both in its creation and its effects. The influence of life, that is, of socio-historical reality, on artistic creation is indirect since it is always mediated by the artist's particular psyche. The effect of art on life, on the other hand, allows human beings to become aware of their social reality and engage to change it. Art is, therefore, transformative, as it reorganizes the psyche and enables a change in the material conditions of human beings.(AU)

Este proyecto tuve como objetivo analizar la relación entre el arte y la vida, según Vigotski. Para esto, fue realizado un análisis de los capítulos 1, 7, 9, 10 y 11 de Psicología del arte, del capítulo 13 de Psicología Pedagógica y del texto Él significado histórico de la crisis de la Psicología: una investigación metodológica. La pesquisa conceptual consiste en la analice semántica de los conceptos de una teoría, para aclarar sus significados ocultos o confusos y desvendar contradicciones y ambigüedades em el cuadro teórico. Pudimos observar que, el arte es un fenómeno dialéctico en su creación tanto como en sus efectos. La influencia de la vida, esto es, de la realidad socio-histórica, en la creación artística es indirecta, pues es mediada por el psiquismo particular de lo artista. Así, el efecto del arte sobre la vida habilita que lo ser humano adquiera conciencia de su realidad social y que se comprometa a cambiarla. El arte, consiguientemente, transformadora, pues reorganiza lo psiquismo y habilita un cambio en las condiciones materiales de los seres humanos.(AU)

[Health management in the Southwest District from 1950 to 1952].

A sequence of essential measures were taken by the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the government in the Southwest District, to rebuild social rules, carry out social changes and improve the local health situation in the beginning period of the New China. These measures referred to the construction of an administrative organization system, the recovery and rectification of medical and pharmaceutical administration, the training of health professionals, environmental pollution improvement and disease prevention and publicising medical and health knowledge. These measures not only improved health management but also promoted national unity and political identity. As a result, they helped solve the problems left by the local new democratic government and made social changes and consolidated the new national power.

Acupuncture Anesthesia on American Bodies: Communism, Race, and the Cold War in the Making of "Legitimate" Medical Science.

This article explores the brief American fascination with acupuncture anesthesia, a technique in which needling was used in place of, or in combination with, chemical anesthetics during surgery. In 1971, a series of American medical delegations began traveling to China to observe the procedure and gauge its viability. While some of these physicians were optimistic about the technique's therapeutic possibilities, others were antagonistic to its feasibility in an American context. Previous studies have explained the quick rise and rapid delegitimization of acupuncture anesthesia by invoking the professional interests of biomedical doctors. In contrast, this article rethinks the history of the procedure by casting it against the backdrop of the Cold War. In discussions about the legitimacy of the technique, assumptions about race, communist politics, and Cold War bipolarity were omnipresent, causing acupuncture anesthesia to become a synecdoche for the promises and perils of Chinese communism writ large.

[Intermixture of politics and science in the GDR. The investigation of deaths at the Department of Neurology and Psychiatry at Leipzig University under Müller-Hegemann in 1963]. / Vermischung von Politik und Wissenschaft in der DDR. Die Untersuchung der Todesfälle an der Leipziger Neurologisch-Psychiatrischen Universitätsklinik unter Müller-Hegemann 1963.

This study presents archival sources that shed light on a topic still being discussed by psychiatrists in East Germany: the death of two patients at the Leipzig Department that occurred in 1960 and 1962 under the directorship of Dietfried Müller-Hegemann. These fatalities were supposed to have been induced by obsolete psychotropic drugs and were associated with Ivan Pavlov's hypnotherapy. The incidents were investigated both by highest administrative bodies and the General State Prosecutor of the former GDR. Archival sources suggest that lower party organs and the ministerial administration tried to make use of the proceedings to bring about the downfall of the head of the Leipzig Department, who had become ideologically suspicious. However, the official General State Prosecutor's investigation ascertained that both Müller-Hegemann and Christa Kohler, head of the psychotherapeutic ward, were not to be held responsible. Although the SED Central Committee at first tried to influence the outcome on the basis of ideological reservations made by the university party organisation, it finally accepted and confirmed the judgment of the General State Prosecutor. Hence, in this case, the highest party bodies followed arguments that were the result of an independent investigation and were not influenced by an individual bias or ideological motives.

Professor Charles I. McLaren, MD (1) : His Life and Medical Philosophy / 신경정신의학

Professor Charles I. McLaren (1882-1957) was an Australian Christian missionary and a professor of psychiatry in Korea. As the first psychiatrist from a Western country, he accomplished tremendous achievements in clinical, teaching and writing activities as well as in his missionary work. He graduated from the University of Melbourne in 1906 and, after residency training under Professor Dr. Sir Richard Stawell at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, he and his wife came to Korea in 1911. He practised medicine at Margaret Whitecross Paton Memorial Hospital in Chinju, Korea and later was appointed as a professor of psychiatry at the Severance Union Medical School in Seoul, Korea. He left Korea for a while to participate in WWII as a military doctor and he also once traveled to Vienna to learn new skills, including fever therapy and psychoanalysis. Because of his love for the Korean people, Dr. McLaren not only introduced into Korean society modern Western psychiatry and a humanitarian approach to patients with mental disorders, but he also practised medicine according to his own unique medical philosophy drawn from Christian spirituality and he educated Korean native students in psychiatry and Christianity. He and his wife also made efforts to improve old customs in Korean society. Because he argued against Japan's enforcement of emperor-worship, he had to resign from the Severance Medical College in 1939, and he returned to Chinju. Immediately after the bombing of Pearl Harbour, he was arrested, imprisoned, interned, and subequently expelled to Australia in 1942. In Melbourne, received wide press coverage and great controversy. He lectured widely and contributed to various professional and other publications, covering not only subjects in Christianity and medicine/psychiatry, but also his opinions about the war and Japan, communism and the White Australia policy. As a Christian me-dical doctor and scientist, he was interested in the "nature of man", the relationship or interaction between body (brain and/or material) and mind/spirituality, the origin of human consciousness in relation to time-space energy, the healing of disease, and the etiology of mental illness and spiritual treatment. He was passionate in his stated belief that God's Word applied to the whole spec-trum of human relationships, from personal to international, as well as to the natural world. Dr. McLaren kept his conservative Christian beliefs, but he respected traditional Asian philosophies. His thoughts and experiences were publically expressed through lectures, journals and books, not only in Korea but also in China and Australia. He was a man of compassion, courage and ceaseless intellectual activity, a pioneer of psychiatry and a lifelong explorer of the Bible. Korean psych-iatrists, who may feel confused by the many complicated new medical theories and advanced technologies, still find Dr. McLaren's simple and clear teachings on science, medicine, and human nature and his practice of caring for mental patients with a compassionate, humanitarian and Christian attitude a challenging example to emulate.

Hormones and the Bolsheviks: from organotherapy to experimental endocrinology, 1918-1929.

The discipline of endocrinology emerged over roughly the same period in Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and elsewhere, and its practitioners across the world shared research practices and agendas to a considerable degree. Yet the discipline's institutions, networks, and social practices were firmly embedded in the particular social fabric of concrete locales, and they were built on specific local traditions, resources, and patronage. Through analysis of the origins and early progress of Soviet endocrinology, this essay uncovers numerous factors and multiple actors involved with the institutional development of the discipline in the first decade of Bolshevik rule. As elsewhere in the world, the medicinal use of animal tissue extracts--organotherapy--paved the way for wide acceptance of the ideas of the nascent science of endocrinology by both the Soviet medical community and the general public. Organotherapy also supplied the new discipline with "seed" institutions, technologies, and personnel--the veterinarian Iakov Tobolkin and the therapist Vasilii Shervinskii. But the specific institutional, political, economic, and ideological landscape of Soviet Russia shaped the discipline in a particular way.

International Monetary Fund programs and tuberculosis outcomes in post-communist countries.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have indicated that International Monetary Fund (IMF) economic programs have influenced health-care infrastructure in recipient countries. The post-communist Eastern European and former Soviet Union countries experienced relatively similar political and economic changes over the past two decades, and participated in IMF programs of varying size and duration. We empirically examine how IMF programs related to changes in tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates among these countries. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We performed multivariate regression of two decades of tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and mortality data against variables potentially influencing tuberculosis program outcomes in 21 post-communist countries for which comparative data are available. After correcting for confounding variables, as well as potential detection, selection, and ecological biases, we observed that participating in an IMF program was associated with increased tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates by 13.9%, 13.2%, and 16.6%, respectively. Each additional year of participation in an IMF program was associated with increased tuberculosis mortality rates by 4.1%, and each 1% increase in IMF lending was associated with increased tuberculosis mortality rates by 0.9%. On the other hand, we estimated a decrease in tuberculosis mortality rates of 30.7% (95% confidence interval, 18.3% to 49.5%) associated with exiting the IMF programs. IMF lending did not appear to be a response to worsened health outcomes; rather, it appeared to be a precipitant of such outcomes (Granger- and Sims-causality tests), even after controlling for potential political, socioeconomic, demographic, and health-related confounders. In contrast, non-IMF lending programs were connected with decreased tuberculosis mortality rates (-7.6%, 95% confidence interval, -1.0% to -14.1%). The associations observed between tuberculosis mortality and IMF programs were similar to those observed when evaluating the impact of IMF programs on tuberculosis incidence and prevalence. While IMF programs were connected with large reductions in generalized government expenditures, tuberculosis program coverage, and the number of physicians per capita, non-IMF lending programs were not significantly associated with these variables. CONCLUSIONS: IMF economic reform programs are associated with significantly worsened tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates in post-communist Eastern European and former Soviet countries, independent of other political, socioeconomic, demographic, and health changes in these countries. Future research should attempt to examine how IMF programs may have related to other non-tuberculosis-related health outcomes.

[Sanitary and antiepidemic mass campaign of Soviet Area public in the 1930s of 20th century].

During the period of Agrarian Revolution, the Central Provisional Government of the Soviet Republic of China published a series of laws and regulations, established strict organizational system, took effective methods and measures and started massive public sanitary and antiepidemic campaigns so as to promote the health construction of the Soviet Area and guarantee the health of the people and the commanders and fighters of the Red Army, reflecting the objective of "serving the people whole-heartedly" of the Chinese Communist Party.

Aproximación a un estudio alternativo del déficit de atención en niños, desde una perspectiva histórico-social, a partir del juego terapéutico gestáltico / Approaching an alternative study of the attention deficit in children, from a historical-social perspective, from the gestalt therapeutic game

Es indiscutible que el desarrollo de los conocimientos en psicología se halla unido mediante numerosos e indisolubles lazos, aunque a veces invisibles a la evolución de las ideas filosóficas. En la época contemporánea a la filosofía idealista se le opone un poderoso contrincante: La Filosofía marxista. El marxismo, sistema íntegro y ramificado de ideas, después de sintetizar los resultados alcanzados por la filosofía y la ciencia del periodo precedente, elaboró varios principios metodológicos que imprimieron una dirección a las investigaciones acerca del hombre y de su actividad psíquica.

It is indisputable that the development of the knowledge in the psychology is united by means of numerous and indisputable lazos, at times invisible to the evolution of the philosophical ideas. In contemporary times the idealist philosophy is opposed by a powerful counterpart: The Marxist Philosophy. Marxism, a wholistic and branched system of ideas, rather than synthesizing the results achieved by the philosophy and science of the preceding period, elaborated various methodological principles that imprinted a direction on investigations into man and his psychic activity.

Family medicine practice and research: survey of physicians' attitudes towards scientific research in a post-communist transition country.

BACKGROUND: Although the paradigm of modern medicine is evidence-based practice, there is a lack of research output and interest in research in family medicine. We investigated attitudes towards scientific research among family medicine practitioners in a country in post-communist socioeconomic transition, and related it to their attitudes towards alternative medicine and clinical knowledge relevant for their practice. METHODS: We surveyed 427 family medicine practitioners in Croatia about their attitudes towards scientific research (5-point rating scale, total score range 20-100) and alternative medicine (5-point rating scale, total score range 14-70). We also tested their knowledge on diagnosis and treatment of hypertension (10 questions) and diabetes (12 questions). RESULTS: The attitude towards scientific research was positive (score 79.0 +/- 7.2 out of maximum 100) and significantly more positive than that towards alternative medicine (score 45.0 +/- 9.9 out of maximum 70; t(425) = 19.06, P < 0.001). The respondents correctly answered about half the questions on hypertension and diabetes; knowledge on new diagnostic and treatment guidelines was better than their textbook knowledge. The attitude scores were not related to knowledge or research activity or the medical practice of the respondents. CONCLUSIONS: Family medicine practitioners in a transition country have a more positive attitude towards science than towards alternative medicine, despite the adverse situation in which they practice. To involve family medicine practitioners in research, interventions must be directed towards changes in behavior and practice and not only towards increasing positive attitudes.

A study of nurses' spiritual intelligence: a cross-sectional questionnaire survey.

BACKGROUND: Nurse's spiritual well-being may assure a positive attitude toward spiritual care, and assist patients in overcoming spiritual distress. Spirituality is often related to one's belief system. Spirituality on the part of nurses is yet largely unheard of in a society with materialism which is one of the most destructive belief systems on the world. OBJECTIVES: The objective of the study was to explore the profile of spiritual intelligence among nurses, and to examine the effect of religions on nurses' spiritual intelligence in China. DESIGN: This is a cross-sectional descriptive and inferential designed study. SETTINGS: The study was carried out in a medical center in China. Subjects were widely distributed, throughout seven provinces, with 16 hospital settings. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 130 registered hospital nurses, who were taking part in a 3-day, national nursing quality conference held by the target medical center in China, were recruited by convenience sampling. METHODS: Wolman's (2001) four-point Likert-type Psycho-Matrix Spirituality Inventroy (PSI) was distributed collaboratively during the period of the conference. Upon receiving oral approval from nursing administrators, the author ensured that subjects' responses would remain confidential and that filling out the questionnaire was to be construed as willingness to participate in this study. RESULTS: 1. The majority of nurses (90%) tended to experience numerous instances of physical emotional pain and suffering throughout life. 2. Among the 130 subjects, only seven nurses clearly specified their religions, and religious beliefs accounted for most of the variance in the criterion variable in the study. CONCLUSIONS: Exploring nurses' spiritual profiles, especially for those who seem to be unfamiliar with spiritual matters, is a starting point on the journey to delivering spiritual care. Chinese nurses' spiritual intelligence is only to be excavated. The study draws attention to the diverse culture of the nurses' concepts of spirituality, which is fundamental to the delivery of truly holistic care of humans in a multi-faith society.

Religion and spirituality: a discussion paper about negativity, reductionism and differentiation in nursing texts.

BACKGROUND: The last 30 years have seen a proliferation of literature about spirituality in the nursing press. A dominant theme has been the need to differentiate spirituality from religion and this has provoked a number of authors to attempt to define and describe religion. As nursing advocates respect for the person's religious beliefs the way in which it is portrayed is very relevant. AIMS: This work explores how religion is defined and discussed in the nursing literature about spirituality to consider whether the way religion is portrayed could be said to demonstrate 'respect' for religious beliefs. METHODS: Texts about religion were examined in relation to theories of religion from anthropology, sociology and religious studies. These disciplines have produced substantive or irreducible accounts in contrast to functional and reductive theories about religion. RESULTS: The result of this analysis is that there appears to be a tendency to talk about religion without using sources which itself suggests a lack of respect as well as an inclination to view it only in reductive and functional terms. This is proved by the similarity of ideas in the nursing literature to the functionalist and reductionist theories of Frazer, Tylor, Marx, Durkheim and Freud. This approach is criticised with reference to the work of Otto, Bellah, Berger and Pals who suggest that religion should be seen as irreducibly to do with the sacred. It is proposed that this is a more appropriate outlook to take for an occupation which professes to respect the religious beliefs of all individuals. However, viewing religion in this more meaningful way, acknowledging their spirituality has implications for attempts to differentiate religion and spirituality. CONCLUSION: Reductive accounts of religion imply, probably inadvertently but nevertheless negative, attitudes towards religious belief. A more serious and deeper exploration of the meaning of religion from the standpoint of irreducibility might be more respectful and tolerant of religious belief. This is particularly salient in a society where religious practice is increasing both in the indigenous population and as a result of immigration.

Petit bourgeois health care? The big small-business of private complementary medical practice.

Although small business private complementary medicine (CAM) has grown to be a significant provider of health care in many Western societies, there has been relatively little research on the sector in business terms and on its wider socio-economic position and role. Using a combined questionnaire and interview survey, and the concept of small business petit bourgeoisie as a framework, this paper considers the character of therapists and their businesses in England and Wales. The findings suggest that typical of the core characteristics of both the petit bourgeoisie and therapists are the selling of goods with a considerable market viability, at the same time financial insecurity; the modest size of businesses; small amounts of direct employment generation and business owners undertaking everyday 'hands-on' work themselves. Certain of the therapists' and business characteristics depart from the stereotypical image of a small businesses class, such as the high incidence of part-time self-employment and incomes being supplemented often by unrelated waged employment. However, given the acknowledged diversity of the petit bourgeoisie between societies and over time, the framework is arguably appropriate in this context, and private CAM a latest guise. Indeed, just as the petit bourgeoisie have traditionally found market niches either neglected or rejected by bigger business, small business CAM has provided the forms of health care neglected and sometimes rejected by orthodox medicine.

Rough and rocky road to the retinoid revolution.

Some of us who were born in the middle of Europe between World Wars I and II had to face quite a few unusual challenges that we all met in different ways. I was born and raised in Prague, Czechoslovakia, a country at the time of my birth that was governed by a Western style of democracy, which was later destroyed by the occupation by Nazi Germany and subsequently by the takeover by the equally cruel Communists. Life required special means of adaptation to the changing living conditions and a great deal of luck to survive. After graduating from the School of Technology, I started working in the Department of Medicine at Charles University in Prague as a clinical chemist in endocrinology. This work was followed with training in basic biochemistry and the study of metabolic changes in stress. This rather diversified research, due to my changing of workplaces, led to the findings that diet can change enzymatic activity of liver tryptophan oxygenase. For a short time I worked on the metabolism of cyclic AMP in Escherichia coli, and at the age of 41, I made a risky move and succeeded in escaping with my family from the "paradise of communism." The reasons for this decision will become clear. After settling in the United States, I worked on the mechanism of activation of liver tryptophan oxygenase by cyclic AMP and eventually moved to the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. There I initially worked on the mechanism of action of steroid hormones and finally on the molecular mechanism of action of retinoids, retinol, and retinoic acid. Also in cooperation with neonatologists, I initiated studies on prematurely born human neonates which led to successful supplementation of these patients with vitamin A. The work from my laboratory and my coworkers eventually became recognized.

Regional differences in trends in life expectancy and the influence of the political and socioeconomic contexts in Germany.

The aim of the study is to investigate to what extent trends in life expectancy are influenced by political variables and socioeconomic characteristics that play a role at the regional level of the federal states in Germany. Data on life expectancy in males and females at birth are analyzed from 1986 to 1998 for 12 federal states in Eastern and Western Germany. These states are classified into five types of political government since 1980: (1) long-term Christian democratic, (2) long-term social democratic, (3) change from Christian to social democratic, (4) change from communist to social democratic, and (5) change from communist to Christian democratic. The study showed three main results. First, life expectancy has been directly influenced by the major political forces that determined policies in East and West Germany. Second, life expectancy was higher in federal states with predominantly Christian democratic governments than in those with predominantly social democratic governments. Third, life expectancy was strongly related to the economic power of the federal states. Because federal states characterized by a more prosperous economic situation were those with a predominantly Christian democratic government, while federal states with a less prosperous situation were mostly governed by social democrats, it is difficult to disentangle the effects of economic and political factors on life expectancy. Nevertheless, this study underlines the importance of politics and policies on such robust and more general health indicators as mean life expectancy at birth.

Informed consent in China: status quo and its future.

Informed consent is one of the fundamental rights of a patient. However it used to be ignored in mainland China and was neither academically discussed nor a matter of practical concern until recent years. Paternalism was dominant in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine which was intensely influenced by Confucianism. The historic medical paternalism was reinforced under communism and the planned economy due to the communist beliefs. But is has been frequently challenged in recent years with patients' awakening awareness of rights and the advent of rights-defending litigation culture in the course of the transformation to market economy. Nevertheless, the current Chinese laws lag behind this patients' awakening awareness and litigation culture. The resulting deficiency in Chinese laws governing medical relations has created dilemmas and chaos in the resolution of medical disputes. In conclusion, the author appeals for the amendment of Chinese law and tries to point out how it should be amended.