Factors Associated with Attitude towards Wife-Beating among Married Women of the Reproductive Ages in Arba Minch Town, Southern Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Evidence from demographic and health surveys in various countries and Ethiopia too showed that more women are generally believed to justify intimate partner violence (IPV) than men do. An attitude that justifies IPV is one of the factors affecting victimization and perpetration from IPV. However, women's justification about the violence and factors affecting the justification are not well documented, particularly by addressing household factors such as household food conditions. Therefore, the present study aims to fill this gap among married women of childbearing age so that evidence can be drawn for holistic interventions. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 696 currently married women of childbearing age (15-49) by using a multistage cluster sampling technique to obtain the women from 11 kebeles (the smallest administrative unit in the government structure of Ethiopia) of Arba Minch town, Southern Ethiopia. Data were collected using a pretested and structured questionnaire. Logistic regression was performed using IBM SPSS version 20. The odds ratio with its 95% confidence interval was used to show the degree of association between the outcome variable and explanatory variables. Nearly two-thirds (59.5%) of the study women justified wife-beating in at least one of the five conditions. A higher odds of justification of wife-beating was observed among women whose marriage was arranged by any other person than the couples themselves, from food-insecure households, with a family size of 5 and above, in the age group of 30-39 years, and whose partner was in the age range of 31-39 years. In contrast, lower odds of justification of wife-beating was observed among women having an age difference of 10 or more years with their partner and those in a household wealth index of middle and higher category. Despite great efforts in realizing gender equality in the country, a higher proportion of women were having the attitude that justifies wife-beating in the five conditions specified to them. Interventions targeting the improvement of women's attitude towards wife-beating should target against the traditional norms of arranged marriage, improve household food conditions, and decrease family size.

Early intervention with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy to reduce the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms in recent rape victims: a randomized controlled trial.

Background: About 40% of rape victims develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within three months after the assault. Considering the high personal and societal impact of PTSD, there is an urgent need for early (i.e. within three months after the incident) interventions to reduce post-traumatic stress in victims of rape. Objective: To assess the effectiveness of early intervention with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy to reduce symptoms of post-traumatic stress, feelings of guilt and shame, sexual dysfunction, and other psychological dysfunction (i.e. general psychopathology, anxiety, depression, and dissociative symptoms) in victims of rape. Method: This randomized controlled trial included 57 victims of rape, who were randomly allocated to either two sessions of EMDR therapy or treatment as usual ('watchful waiting') between 14 and 28 days post-rape. Psychological symptoms were assessed at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and 8 and 12 weeks post-rape. Linear mixed models and ANCOVAs were used to analyse differences between conditions over time. Results: Within-group effect sizes of the EMDR condition (d = 0.89 to 1.57) and control condition (d = 0.79 to 1.54) were large, indicating that both conditions were effective. However, EMDR therapy was not found to be more effective than watchful waiting in reducing post-traumatic stress symptoms, general psychopathology, depression, sexual dysfunction, and feelings of guilt and shame. Although EMDR therapy was found to be more effective than watchful waiting in reducing anxiety and dissociative symptoms in the post-treatment assessment, this effect disappeared over time. Conclusions: The findings do not support the notion that early intervention with EMDR therapy in victims of rape is more effective than watchful waiting for the reduction of psychological symptoms, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Further research on the effectiveness of early interventions, including watchful waiting, for this specific target group is needed.

Antecedentes: Aproximadamente el 40% de las víctimas de violación desarrollan trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) dentro de los tres meses posteriores a la agresión. Teniendo en cuenta el alto impacto personal y social del TEPT, existe una necesidad urgente de intervenciones tempranas (es decir, dentro de los tres meses posteriores al incidente) para reducir el estrés postraumático en las víctimas de violación.Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de la intervención temprana con terapia de desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimiento ocular (EMDR en su sigla en inglés) para reducir los síntomas de estrés postraumático, sentimientos de culpa y vergüenza, disfunción sexual, y otras disfunciones psicológicas (es decir, psicopatología general, ansiedad, depresión, y síntomas disociativos) en víctimas de violación.Método: Este ensayo controlado aleatorizado incluyó a 57 víctimas de violación, que fueron asignadas al azar a dos sesiones de terapia EMDR o al tratamiento habitual ("espera vigilante") entre 14 y 28 días después de la violación. Los síntomas psicológicos se evaluaron antes del tratamiento, después del tratamiento, y 8 y 12 semanas después de la violación. Se utilizaron modelos lineales mixtos y ANCOVAs para analizar las diferencias entre las condiciones a lo largo del tiempo.Resultados: Los tamaños del efecto dentro del grupo de la condición EMDR (d = 0.89 a 1.57) y la condición de control (d = 0.79 a 1.54) fueron grandes, lo que indica que ambas condiciones fueron efectivas. Sin embargo, no se encontró que la terapia EMDR fuera más efectiva que la espera vigilante para reducir los síntomas de estrés postraumático, la psicopatología general, la depresión, la disfunción sexual, y los sentimientos de culpa y vergüenza. Aunque se encontró que la terapia EMDR era más efectiva que la espera vigilante para reducir la ansiedad y los síntomas disociativos en la evaluación posterior al tratamiento, este efecto desapareció con el tiempo.Conclusiones: Los hallazgos no apoyan la noción de que la intervención temprana con terapia EMDR en víctimas de violación sea más efectiva que la espera vigilante para la reducción de los síntomas psicológicos, incluyendo los síntomas del estrés postraumático. Se necesitan más investigaciones sobre la efectividad de las intervenciones tempranas, incluida la espera vigilante, para este grupo objetivo específico.

Psychosocial impacts among adolescents disengaged from Colombian illegal armed groups and challenges to their attention.

OBJECTIVES: Our study focused on the impacts on health among adolescents who became members of illegal armed groups in Colombia and their attention within the specialized government programme as seen by the professionals who work directly with them. Previous research indicates that those victims of armed violence are usually highly affected on their emotional and social health, but with appropriate and timely support more serious mental health problems can be prevented. Therefore, the care provided to them should be based on broader and holistic approaches. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used the qualitative method based on semi-structured interviews with 42 professionals, and internal reports on the health condition of 165 adolescents, 57 (34.5%) females and 108 (65.5%) males, as a secondary source of information. All information was anonymous and confidential. RESULTS: The interviews with professionals and their reports demonstrated that about a half of the 165 adolescents, 35 of 57 (61.4%) females and 48 of 108 (44.4%) males, suffered from serious symptoms requiring therapeutic and psychiatric attention. About 20% of the adolescents presented clinically important post-traumatic stress symptoms, 27% admitted sexual abuse and 29% psychoactive substance abuse. The professionals stressed various obstacles to the attention of these multiple impacts related both to the administrative and institutional issues and the particular characteristics of this population. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show the complexity of the psychosocial impacts among adolescent victims of the Colombian armed conflict and their attention. Highly trained professionals and alternative strategies including active listening, observation and art therapy activities seem to be vital for an effective care. The lessons learned from the Colombian reintegration programme serve as important inputs to be considered when attending children and adolescents from conflict-stricken areas also in other contexts.

Bullying victimization: time trends and the overlap between traditional and cyberbullying across countries in Europe and North America.

OBJECTIVES: This study explores recent cross-national trends over time (2002-2014) in the occurrence of victimization by bullying; then it documents the overlap between cybervictimization and traditional bullying in 2014 among adolescents in 37 countries. METHODS: Data from four cycles (2002, 2006, 2010, and 2014) of the cross-national Health Behavior in School-Aged Children study were included (N = 764,518). Trends in traditional victimization were evaluated using logistic regression models in 37 countries. Prevalence of cybervictimization and the overlap between cybervictimization and traditional victimization were estimated. RESULTS: Linear decreases in bullying victimization were observed in 21 countries among boys, and in 12 countries among girls. The prevalence of cybervictimization was systematically lower than traditional victimization. Overall across all countries, 45.8% of those who reported cybervictimization also reported traditional victimization (46.5% for boys and 45.3% for girls), but wide country variations were observed. CONCLUSIONS: These indicate the need for a more holistic perspective to intervention and prevention that considers all expressions of bullying, traditional or online. Public health programs and policies could focus on addressing bullying more broadly, rather than focusing on behaviors that happen in a particular context.

Occupational Well-Being in Sexual Assault Victims and Survivors.

Purpose: While researchers have established that sexual assault may adversely affect successful employment and academic achievement, little is known about the barriers and facilitators of occupational well-being from the perspective of sexual assault survivors. This study assessed the barriers and facilitators of occupational well-being. Design: Constructivist grounded theory. Method: Digitally recorded, semistructured interviews were used to collect data. Data were collected from 22 adult female sexual assault survivors. Analysis consisted of coding, creation of data matrices, and within and across case analysis. Findings: Theoretical saturation was achieved after interviews with 22 participants. Barriers to occupational well-being were mental health symptoms and diagnoses, substance abuse, inflexible attendance policies, and workplace bullying. Facilitators to occupational well-being were personal coping strategies, and organizational and social support. Conclusions: Sexual assault has significant effects on the occupational well-being of women. The work or academic environment can exacerbate the harms of sexual assault or facilitate healing in sexual assault survivors. To facilitate the occupational well-being of sexual assault survivors, workplaces and academic institutions can adopt a trauma-informed approach, create policies that allow for time off to deal with sequela of sexual assault, implement anti-bullying programs, and make resources for gendered violence available.

Factors associated with IPV victimisation of women and perpetration by men in migrant communities of Nepal.

This paper aims to describe the prevalent forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), and the factors associated with IPV among women and men living in the two migrant communities of Baglung district, Nepal. 357 adult women and men were enrolled following a family model, interviewing young married women with daughter-in-law status in the home, their husbands, and mothers-in-law and fathers-in-laws using an electronic questionnaire. Random effects regression modelling compared men and women, as well as young married women with daughter-in-law status and older women with mothers-in-law with status. 28.6% of women had ever experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner compared to 18.2% of men ever perpetrated these forms of violence against their wives. Being older, male controlling behaviour and poor relations with husband increased women's IPV in their lifetime while perceptions that the mother-in-law is kind were protective. Being ashamed of being unemployed and childhood trauma were associated with men perpetrating IPV in their lifetime. Borrowing money or food increased young married women's lifetime IPV risk while mother-in-law cruelty and male control increased older married women's lifetime IPV exposure. Factors associated with IPV in the past year among men were being younger, job seeking, experiences of childhood trauma and depression exposure among men while difficulty accessing money for emergencies, holding inequitable gender attitudes, and depression was associated with women's increased IPV exposure. Unemployment stress, holding inequitable gender attitudes and mother-in-law kindness were associated with young women's increased IPV risk and hunger, mother-in-law cruelty and depression with older women's IPV risk. There is a need to critically challenge harmful social and gender norms by using approaches that are sensitive to young married women's position and unequal gender relations in the family. IPV prevention interventions need to employ a holistic approach that combines changing social and gender norms and improving socioeconomic conditions of women living in migrant communities.

[Study of the factors associated with the delay of health consultation of victims of rape in Senegal]. / Étude des facteurs associés au retard de consultation sanitaire des victimes de viols au Sénégal.

INTRODUCTION: Rape remains one of the most serious forms of sexual violence because of its negative impact on the physical and mental health of victims. The objective of this study is to identify the factors associated with the delay in rape victims seeking medical assistance from healthcare professionals in Senegal. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective, descriptive and analytical observation study was conducted. The study population consisted of all the court files of girls or women victims of rape recorded by the investigators at the 11 high courts of Senegal during the period from 2006 to 2015. An exhaustive recruitment of the full records of rape victims meeting the inclusion criteria were completed. The uni and multivariate analyses were carried out with Epi Info 2000 and R 2.2.9 software respectively. RESULTS: At the end of the collection, 1,037 cases of rape were included in the study population. The average age of the victims was 16.3±7.9 years (range 1-72). Minors (<18 years) accounted for 24.8 %. The median time from rape to consultation at a health facility was 24hours. Long delay in consultation (>24hours) was noted for 38.6 % of victims. Risk of late consultation after rape was higher among victims residing in the southern areas (ORaj=4.31 [1.15-16.14]), or northern areas (ORaj=4.22 [1.26-14.14]), who were major (ORaj=1.67 [1.04-2.68]) or married (ORaj=3.44 [1.58-7.5]) or who were pregnant after the aggression (ORaj=34.03 [15.47-74.85]) or had an abortion (ORaj=5.45 [1.04-24.47]). CONCLUSION: Medical and judicial assistance are more difficult if there is a long delay between the aggression and consultation. Thus, it is important for the health and judicial authorities to raise awareness about the harmful consequences of sexual violence, and to put forward the benefits of therapeutic care, compensation for the harm suffered by rape victims, as well as the availability of holistic care services 24hours a day.

"Get Out of My Home and Don't Come Back!" Empowering Women Through Self-Defense.

Can self-defense courses empower those already victimized? This article explores the potential for self-defense courses to have specific efficacy in the prevention of intimate partner violence (IPV). It draws on interview ( n = 36) and pre- and postevaluation ( n = 44) data from two studies: (a) evaluation of a pilot study of a feminist empowerment self-defense course designed specifically for women's refuge/shelter clients (Violence Prevention Project [VPP]) and (b) evaluation of women's self-defense courses collected as part of a larger evaluation study (Skills for Safety). The overwhelmingly positive findings from both studies suggest greater consideration be offered to providing further collaborative refuge/self-defense courses for women victimized by IPV.

Bullying Behaviors and Psychosocial Adjustment Among School-Aged Children in China.

Bullying behaviors have been studied extensively in Western countries; however, no national data exist regarding this issue in contemporary China. Using a sample of 14,536 children in Grades 6, 8, and 10 from public schools in 11 provinces or autonomous regions in rural and urban China, our study assesses the prevalence of bullying behaviors among school-aged children in China and examines the correlation between bullying and psychosocial adjustment. Results indicate that 6.3% of children reported having been bullied in the last 3 months, 2.5% of children admitted to bullying other students, and 2.2% said they were bullied and bullied others in that same time frame. More boys than girls reported bullying others and being victims of bullying. The frequency of bullying is higher in Grades 6 and 8 than in Grade 10. Rural children are more often involved in bullying than their urban counterparts. Perpetrating and being a victim of bullying are associated with poorer psychosocial adjustment, although different patterns are observed among bullies, those bullied, and those who bully others and have been bullied. Health care professionals should be sensitive to bullying behaviors when identifying students with psychosocial maladjustment. Moreover, programs designed to prevent and intervene in school bullying would benefit from a holistic approach.

Matricide in Ghana: Victims, Offenders, and Offense Characteristics.

At present, scholarship on matricide across many regions of the non-Western world is lacking. For instance, in Ghana, despite the intermittent, yet recurrent, availability of media reports describing matricidal acts over the past quarter century, no existing study has systematically analyzed matricidal killings in the West African nation. To contribute to the literature and extend knowledge about matricide and other forms of lethal violence in Ghana, this article presents the results of an analysis of 21 matricidal acts that occurred in Ghana from 1990 to 2016. Issues studied include demographic characteristics of assailants and victims, modus operandi, temporal and spatial aspects, as well as the motives and circumstances surrounding the crime. The results show that sons were substantially more likely than daughters to kill their mothers, matricide offenders were more likely to suffer from serious psychiatric disorders, matricide offenses generally occurred in the victim's home, and all cases of matricide were characterized by massive physical force and extreme violence. Matricide offenses in Ghana differed from matricides in Western nations in four important respects: (a) none of the 21 matricides was perpetrated with a firearm, (b) in none of the cases did the offender act with a co-offender (accomplice or accessory),

Examining within-person and between-person effects of victimization and social risk on cannabis use among emerging adults in substance-use treatment.

The goals of this study were to examine associations between within- and between-person social risk and victimization and cannabis use among emerging adults in substance-use treatment. We also tested gender differences for both victimization and social risk. Participants consisted of 3,052 emerging adults (M(age) = 20.0 years; SD = 2.21) entering substance-use treatment in a wide range of treatment centers across the United States. Individuals were assessed on all measures at baseline 3, 6, and 12 months. We fitted a taxonomy of multilevel growth curve models to test main effects, and interactive relations between within- and between-person social risk, victimization, and gender on cannabis use. Several significant interactions were evident. Irrespective of gender, within-person increases in social risk were associated with contemporaneous increases in cannabis use; however, the magnitude of this relation was comparatively more pronounced for men. Similar gender differences emerged between individuals. Males experiencing heightened social risk over time tended to show high levels of early cannabis use. Simple slope analyses revealed that reporting more (+1 SD) social risk than one's own mean resulted in significant increases in cannabis use for both men and women. Cross-level simple slope analyses revealed no differences in cannabis use among individuals reporting low (-1 SD) social risk and victimization, but significant increases in cannabis use for individuals reporting high (+ 1 SD) victimization and social risk. Results demonstrate support for gender differences in social risk on cannabis use and the importance of considering within-person effects. (PsycINFO Database Record

Posttraumatic Stress among Victimized Latino Women: Evaluating the Role of Cultural Factors.

Research examining victimization and posttraumatic symptomatology among Latinos is lacking in the extant literature. This analysis used the victimized subsample (N = 752) of the Sexual Assault Among Latinas Study. The aim was to evaluate victimization prevalence and test the following hypotheses: (a) that victimization would be associated with higher levels of posttraumatic symptoms, (b) that cultural factors that move away from traditional Latino culture would be associated with higher levels of posttraumatic symptomatology, and (c) that cultural factors associated with traditional Latino culture would be related to lower posttraumatic symptomatology. Average age of the sample was 44.57 years, with three fourths having a high school education or higher, and two thirds having a household income below $30,000. Of exposure types, adulthood threats were most likely to result in Criterion A traumatic events (23.4%). Using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) based PTSD Checklist, between 8.8% and 45.5% of individuals met presumed PTSD diagnosis based on various PCL cut scores or algorithm criteria. Regression analyses indicated that the combined different types of adult and childhood victimizations, masculine gender role, and negative religious coping were associated with increased symptoms (ßs ranging from .16 to .27). The results suggested a role of culture in posttraumatic symptoms for Latinas.

Emotional distress and sense of coherence in women completing a motivational program in five countries. A prospective study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in, and associations between, sense of coherence (SOC) and emotional distress in women who participated in an accredited motivational program (VINN) in correctional institutions in five countries. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: A prospective study with a pre- and post-test design included 316 participants from Sweden, Estonia, Denmark, Russia and Norway. Global emotional distress was measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. SOC was measured using the 13-item Orientation to Life Questionnaire. One-way analysis of variance and multilevel regression models were used in the statistical analyses. FINDINGS: An increase in SOC was associated with a decrease in emotional distress. Emotional distress decreased significantly -3.80 points (95 percent CI (-4.61, -2.97)), and SOC significantly improved from pre- to post-measurement by 1.82 points (95 percent CI (0.72, 2.92)), regardless of country and correctional institution. Practical implications - The results add new knowledge regarding a coherent theoretical foundation of a motivational program for women. The ability of a program promoting health is important for researchers, health-care workers and facilitators delivering programs for women in correctional facilities. An increase in SOC can act as a protective factor in order to manage stressors and risk factors among women serving in correctional facilities. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: The present study indicates that enhancing women's coping resources and providing income alternatives to crime is fundamental to their capacity to desist from criminal behavior.

Prevalence and Correlates of School Bullying Victimization in Xi'an, China.

This study used the data from a representative sample to estimate the prevalence of child bullying victimization in Xi'an, China. Data on social demographic information and the experiences of different types of bullying victimization were collected from a randomly selected sample with 3,175 middle school students aged 15-17 years by self-administrated questionnaires. t Test, χ2 test, and multiple logistic regression analyses were used to test group differences and examine the correlates of bullying victimization. Results show that 54.9% and 44.6% of Chinese children have been bullied in a lifetime and in the preceding year, respectively. Correlates for direct and relational bullying victimization includes male participants, father's lower education level, father's unemployment, having one or more siblings, smoking, depression, borderline personality trait, posttraumatic stress disorder, and from rural schools. Overall, the prevalence of child bullying victimization in China is substantial. The multiple correlates suggest prevention and intervention of bullying victimization in a holistic and comprehensive way.

Traditional and cyberbullying victimization as correlates of psychosocial distress and barriers to a healthy lifestyle among severely obese adolescents--a matched case-control study on prevalence and results from a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Obese youth are at increased risk for peer victimization, which may heighten their risk of psychosocial problems and physical activity avoidance, and lower the effectiveness of professional and lifestyle weight-loss initiatives. Little is known about obese adolescents' risk for victimization from cyber-bullying and how this relates to psychosocial functioning and healthy lifestyle barriers. The purpose of the study was to assess traditional and cyber-victimization among adolescents with severe obesity and its relation to psychosocial distress and barriers to healthy lifestyles. METHODS: A sample of 102 obese adolescents (mean age=15.32±1.71) in residential treatment was matched with 102 normal-weight youngsters from the Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) study (mean age=15.30±1.73). RESULTS: Adolescents with obesity were significantly more often cyber-victimized than normal-weight peers. Obese youth victimized by traditional bullying experienced lower quality of life, lower motivation for physical activity and higher avoidance and emotional coping towards healthy lifestyles than those non-victimized. Obese cyber-victims experienced significantly higher suicidal ideation. CONCLUSIONS: Traditional and cyber-victimization may hinder treatment effectiveness and healthy lifestyle change in adolescents with obesity. Health professionals should pro-actively address peer victimization and psychosocial functioning during multidisciplinary obesity treatment. Schools could contribute to a better physical and psychosocial health of obese youth by implementing multi-behavioral health-promotion programs.

Prior substance abuse and related treatment history reported by recent victims of sexual assault.

To inform intervention approaches, the current study examined prevalence and comorbidity of recent use and history of abuse of alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drugs as well as history of substance treatment among a sample of female victims of sexual assault seeking post-assault medical care. Demographic variables and prior history of assault were also examined to further identify factors relevant to treatment or prevention approaches. Participants were 255 women and adolescent girls seeking post sexual assault medical services who completed an initial follow-up assessment on average within 3 months post-assault. The majority (72.9%) reported recent substance use prior to assault, approximately 40% reported prior substance abuse history, and 12.2% reported prior substance treatment history. Prior history of assault was associated with recent drug use and history of drug abuse as well as substance treatment. Among those with prior histories of substance abuse and assault, assault preceded substance abuse onset in the majority of cases. Almost all those with prior treatment history reported recent drug or alcohol use. A portion of sexual assault survivors seen for acute medical services may benefit from facilitated referral for substance abuse treatment in addition to counseling at the time of screening. Assessment and intervention approaches should target alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drug use and abuse. Substance use and associated impairment may serve as a rape tactic by perpetrators of assault. Substance use at the time of assault does not imply blame on the part of assault victims. Previous findings indicate that rape poses high risk of PTSD particularly among women with prior history of assault. Screening and intervention related to substance abuse should be done with recognition of the increased vulnerability it may pose with regard to assault and the high risk of PTSD within this population.

Religiosity profiles of American youth in relation to substance use, violence, and delinquency.

Relatively little is known in terms of the relationship between religiosity profiles and adolescents' involvement in substance use, violence, and delinquency. Using a diverse sample of 17,705 (49 % female) adolescents from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, latent profile analysis and multinomial regression are employed to examine the relationships between latent religiosity classes and substance use, violence, and delinquency. Results revealed a five class solution. Classes were identified as religiously disengaged (10.76 %), religiously infrequent (23.59 %), privately religious (6.55 %), religious regulars (40.85 %), and religiously devoted (18.25 %). Membership in the religiously devoted class was associated with the decreased likelihood of participation in a variety of substance use behaviors as well as decreases in the likelihood of fighting and theft. To a lesser extent, membership in the religious regulars class was also associated with the decreased likelihood of substance use and fighting. However, membership in the religiously infrequent and privately religious classes was only associated with the decreased likelihood of marijuana use. Findings suggest that private religiosity alone does not serve to buffer youth effectively against involvement in problem behavior, but rather that it is the combination of intrinsic and extrinsic adolescent religiosity factors that is associated with participation in fewer problem behaviors.

Violence in the massage parlor industry: experiences of Canadian-born and immigrant women.

We examined and contrasted 129 Canadian-born and immigrant women's experiences of violence and associated structural and interpersonal factors within indoor commercial sex venues. The majority experienced at least one form of structural, interpersonal, or both types of violence, with the attempted removal of a condom during sexual services being cited most frequently. Canadian-born women reported more frequent violent assaults in the survey data. The women's qualitative narratives illustrated that perceptions of violence differed significantly among Canadian versus non-Canadian born women. Findings concerning racialization and gendered relations of power have important implications for prevention and interventions to support victims of abuse.

The health care costs of violence against women.

The aim of this study is to analyze the health care costs of violence against women. For the study, we used a register-based approach where we identified victims of violence and assessed their actual health care costs at individual level in a bottom-up analysis. Furthermore, we identified a reference population. We computed the attributable costs, that is, the excess health care costs for victims compared to an identified reference population of nonvictims. Only costs within the health care sector were included, that is, somatic and psychiatric hospital costs, costs within the primary health care sector and costs of prescription pharmaceuticals. We estimated the attributable health care costs of violence against women in Denmark, using a generalized linear model where health care costs were modeled as a function of age, childbirth, and exposure to violence. In addition we tested whether socioeconomic status, multiple episodes of violence, and psychiatric contacts had any impact on health care costs. We found that the health care costs were about €1,800 higher for victims of violence than for nonvictims per year, driven mostly by higher psychiatric costs and multiple episodes of violence.