Indicators of dehydration in healthy 4- to 5-day-old dairy calves deprived of feed and water for 24 hours.

Our objective was to identify practical indicators of calf dehydration that could be used in an industry context. Eleven healthy 4-d-old commercial dairy calves were fed 2 L of mixed colostrum, then deprived of food and water for 24 h. Total body water was determined in the fed state using the deuterium dilution method. Body weight, along with a range of behavioral and physiological variables, was recorded 1 h after feeding, then at 90-min intervals through to 24 h. Blood samples were collected at every second sampling to assess changes in plasma hemoglobin, hematocrit, and osmolality. Linear mixed-effects models were used to explore associations between hydration status (% body water) and outcome variables. All calves remained bright and alert with good suckling reflexes throughout the 24-h period. After 24 h, total body water had decreased by an average of 8.4% (standard error 1.18), consistent with mild to moderate dehydration. Skin tent return time, capillary refill time, and detectable enophthalmos were associated with hydration status. Calves with skin tent return times of 3 s or longer were 4.4 percentage points less hydrated than those with return times of less than 3 s. Similarly, a capillary refill time of 3 s or longer was associated with a 4.3 percentage point reduction in hydration compared with refill times of less than 3 s. Calves with detectable enophthalmos (≥1 mm) were 3.5 percentage points less hydrated than those without enophthalmos. The skin tent, capillary refill, and enophthalmos tests are all relatively simple to perform and, although requiring the calf to be briefly restrained, can easily be performed by a single operator. The outcome of these tests was relatively consistent, in that calves above the threshold in any test were 3.5 to 4.5% less hydrated than calves below the threshold. As such, these tests may be of practical utility to identify calves with mild to moderate dehydration in an industry setting.

Hypotonic enteral electrolyte solutions administered by nasoesophageal tube in continuous flow in dogs dehydrated by water restriction: Part 1 / Soluções eletrolíticas enterais hipotônicas administradas por sonda nasoesofágica em fluxo contínuo em cães desidratados por restrição hídrica: Parte 1

The present study assessed and compared the effects of hypotonic enteral electrolyte solutions administered by nasoesophageal tube in continuous flow in dogs submitted to water restriction on packed cell volume; total serum protein and serum osmolarity concentrations; blood volume; plasma glucose and lactate levels; blood gas analysis, anion gap, and strong ion difference. Six adult dogs were used (four males and two females). All animals were submitted to both proposed treatments in a crossover design 6×2. The treatments were as follows: ESmalt consisting of 5g sodium chloride, 1g potassium chloride, 1g calcium acetate, 0.2g magnesium pidolate, and 9.6g maltodextrin that were diluted in 1.000mL water (measured osmotic concentration of 215mOsm L−1) and ESdext consisting of 5g sodium chloride, 1g potassium chloride, 1g calcium acetate, 0.2g magnesium pidolate, and 9.6g dextrose that were diluted in 1.000mL water (measured osmotic concentration of 243mOsm L−1). All solutions were administered at 15ml kg−1 h−1 for 4 hours. Both solutions increased the plasma volume in dehydrated dogs without causing adverse effects. However, ESmalt was more effective in promoting the increase in blood volume.(AU)

O presente estudo avaliou e comparou os efeitos de soluções eletrolíticas enterais hipotônicas, administradas por sonda nasoesofágica em fluxo contínuo em cães submetidos a restrição hídrica, sobre o hematócrito, proteínas totais séricas, osmolaridade sérica, volemia, glicose e lactato plasmáticos, hemogasometria, ânion gap e DIF. Foram utilizados seis cães adultos (quatro machos e duas fêmeas). Todos os animais foram submetidos aos dois tratamentos propostos, em um delineamento crossover 6×2. Os tratamentos foram os seguintes: SEmalt - 5g de cloreto de sódio, 1g de cloreto de potássio, 1g de acetato de cálcio, 0,2g de pidolato de magnésio e 9,6g de maltodextrina, diluídos em 1.000mL de água (osmolaridade mensurada: 215mOsm L -1 ); SEdext - 5g de cloreto de sódio, 1g de cloreto de potássio, 1g de acetato de cálcio, 0,2g de pidolato de magnésio e 9,6g de dextrose, diluídos em 1.000mL de água (osmolaridade mensurada: 243mOsm L -1 ). Todas as soluções foram administradas no volume de 15mL kg -1 hora -1 , durante quatro horas, em fluxo contínuo. Ambas as soluções aumentaram o volume plasmático em cães desidratados, sem gerar o aparecimento de efeitos adversos. Porém, a SEmalt foi mais eficaz em promover a expansão da volemia.

Perspectives on Feeding and Nutrition.

Many palliative care patients have reduced oral intake during their illness. Managing inadequate intake through appetite stimulation and/or artificial hydration and nutrition poses many clinical, ethical, and logistical dilemmas. This article aids the health care team in making appropriate recommendations regarding assisted nutrition and hydration for palliative care and terminal patients. It provides a decision-making framework, including an ethical approach to determining appropriate use of assisted feeding and hydration methods in pets at the end of life. It also summarizes various clinical and logistical approaches to treating decreased food/water consumption, including potential benefits and burdens, should intervention be deemed appropriate.

Effect of crofelemer extract on severity and consistency of experimentally induced enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli diarrhea in newborn Holstein calves.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a standardized botanical extract of Croton lechleri, named crofelemer extract, on fecal dry matter and fecal scores on diarrheic newborn Holstein bull calves induced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. A double-blinded randomized clinical trial was performed in which 60 newborn Holstein bull calves were clean caught and transported to an isolation facility where calves were individually housed and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups: placebo (control), enteric-coated formulation of crofelemer extract (ECROF), and nonenteric-coated formulation of crofelemer extract (CROF). Diarrhea was induced at first feeding with an inoculum of the enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ATCC 31616) administered with a third of the recommended dose of a colostrum replacer. All calves enrolled in this study received treatments starting on the second feeding (diarrhea onset) and treatments were administered before feeding time (0600 and 1600h) for 6 feedings consecutively. All calves in this study had failure of passive transfer. The only cause of death in this study was due to septicemia, accounting for 1 death out of each treatment group. All the calves were examined twice daily, within 2h after feeding, from d 1 (prechallenge) until 10, on d 15, and a last examination on d 25 of life. Five parameters were evaluated during each examination; rectal temperature, clinical assessment of dehydration status, fecal scores, attitude, and appetite. No differences were observed between treatment groups for rectal temperature, attitude, and appetite. Fecal dry matter was analyzed as prechallenge fecal dry matter, dry matter during treatment, and fecal dry matter after treatment cessation. No difference in prechallenge fecal dry matter was observed and prechallenge fecal dry matter was used as a covariate in the models. Fecal dry matter during treatment was significantly higher for ECROF calves when compared with control calves and CROF calves. Additionally, ECROF fecal dry matter after treatment cessation had a statistical tendency to be higher when compared with control calves. Together, these results suggest that enteric-coated formulation of the standardized crofelemer extract, a natural-product with antisecretory properties, can significantly increase fecal dry matter of neonatal calves with experimentally induced enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli diarrhea. More research is needed to test the efficacy of enteric-coated crofelemer on incidence and severity of secretory diarrhea on calves under natural challenge conditions.

Performance and physiology of pigs administered spray-dried plasma protein during the late suckling period and transported after weaning.

The objective was to determine the effects of spray-dried plasma protein (SDPP), given as an oral gavage during the last 5 d of suckling, on weight gain and physiology in pigs after weaning and transportation for 5 h. Pigs were assigned to 1 of 4 treatments: 1) SDPP (9.375 g) + transportation, 2) water + transportation, 3) SDPP + no transportation, and 4) water + no transportation (n = 10 barrows and 10 gilts per treatment). Pigs received 25 mL of the SDPP (0.375 g/mL) or water twice daily. There was no effect (P = 0.55) of gavage on weaning BW. On the day of weaning, BW decreased in all groups but the magnitude was greatest in SDPP pigs that were transported (gavage × transportation × time, P = 0.03). Rectal temperatures increased in all groups but were greater after transportation than after no transportation (gavage × transportation × time, P < 0.01). Effects of transportation × time existed for several blood chemistry measures. Urea and protein concentrations increased (P < 0.01) in transported pigs only. Creatinine, chloride, and albumin increased (P < 0.01) and CO2 decreased (P < 0.01) in both transported and nontransported pigs, but the magnitudes of change were greater after transportation. Concentrations of sodium increased (P < 0.01) only in transported pigs receiving water and not in the other groups (gavage × transportation × time, P < 0.01). Concentrations of phosphorous (P < 0.01) were affected by sex × gavage × transportation × time and increased (P < 0.01) in transported, water-treated gilts but not barrows. Overall changes in concentrations of urea, creatinine, chloride, CO2, protein, albumin, sodium, and phosphorous are consistent with dehydration in transported pigs in this study and in the case of sodium (both sexes) and phosphorous (gilts only), these minerals were maintained by prior gavage with SDPP. Transported pigs receiving SDPP tended (P = 0.1) to have greater concentrations of glucose than transported pigs receiving water and had similar glucose levels to nontransported pigs receiving water, suggesting that SDPP before weaning and transportation helps to maintain concentrations. Postweaning BW was affected (P = 0.01) by gavage × time and at wk 5, pigs gavaged with SDPP tended (P = 0.1) to weigh more than pigs gavaged with water. Providing SDPP before weaning prevented transportation-induced changes in some blood components and enhanced postweaning weight gain.

An alkalinizing oral rehydration solution containing lecithin-coated citrus fiber is superior to a nonalkalinizing solution in treating 360 calves with naturally acquired diarrhea.

The aim of this field study was to compare the efficacy and cost of 2 commercially available oral rehydration therapy (ORT) solutions in treating dairy calves with naturally acquired diarrhea. A total of 1,349 newborn Holstein-Friesian calves were prospectively enrolled in the study. Calves were housed in individual hutches and fed a mixture of pasteurized hospital milk and an all-milk protein milk replacer twice per day. Calves were monitored twice each day from d 2 of life until 30 d of age for the presence or absence of diarrhea, and were assigned a fecal score and a hydration score at each examination. Calves that developed mild to severe diarrhea that did not need intravenous fluids and did not have clinical evidence of concurrent disease (n = 360) were assigned randomly to receive 1 of 2 commercial ORT solutions: a hypertonic alkalinizing ORT containing lecithin-coated citrus fibers (Diaque, group D, n = 180; Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim, Germany), and an isotonic nonalkalinizing ORT (RE-SORB, group R, n = 180; Pfizer Animal Health, New York, NY) for 2 to 8d; the duration of treatment depended on whether diarrhea was still present. No significant differences were observed in mortality rates or treatment failure rates between the 2 treatment groups. Fecal consistency returned to normal more quickly in group D calves than in group R calves; consequently, group D calves were treated for 1d less than were group R calves. The increase in body weight after 4d of treatment was larger in group D than in group R. The average daily gain from birth to weaning in calves that did not develop concurrent disease (such as pneumonia) during the study period tended to be higher in group D calves (0.53±0.11 kg/d) than in group R calves (0.51±0.09 kg/d). The smaller number of treatments at a lower cost per treatment produced a cost advantage of $4.82 per treated calf in group D calves compared with group R calves. Our findings support the concept that milk should continue to be fed to diarrheic calves that are being administered an ORT solution in order to maintain growth.

Pathological features in marine birds affected by the prestige's oil spill in the north of Spain.

A total of 2,465 seabirds, mainly common murres (Uria aalge), razorbills (Alca torda), and puffins (Fratercula arctica) that beached in the northwestern part of Spain after the "Prestige" oil spill on 19 November 2002 were examined by pathological methods. Birds were divided into three groups: dead birds with the body covered (group 1) or uncovered (group 2) by oil and birds recovered alive but which died after being treated at a rescue center (group 3). The main gross lesions were severe dehydration and emaciation. Microscopically, hemosiderin deposits, related to cachexia and/or hemolytic anemia, were observed in those birds harboring oil in the intestine. Severe aspergillosis and ulcers in the ventriculus were found only in group 3 birds, probably because of stress associated with attempted rehabilitation at the rescue center. The mild character of the pathological changes suggests that petroleum oil toxicosis causes multiple sublethal changes that have an effect on the ability of the birds to survive at sea, especially weak and young, inexperienced animals. Dehydration and exhaustion seem to be the most likely cause of death.

Nursing sickness in the mink--a metabolic mystery or a familiar foe?

Nursing sickness, the largest single cause of mortality in adult female mink (Mustela vison), is an example of a metabolic disorder, which develops when the demands for lactation require extensive mobilization of body energy reserves. The condition is characterized by progressive weight loss, emaciation, and dehydration with high concentrations of glucose and insulin in the blood. Morbidity due to nursing sickness can be as high as 15% with mortality around 8%, but the incidence is known to vary from year to year. Stress has been shown to trigger the onset of the disease and old females and females with large litters are most often affected. Increasing demand for gluconeogenesis from amino acids due to heavy milk production may be a predisposing factor. Glucose metabolism is inextricably linked to that of protein and fats. In obesity (or lipodystrophy), the ability of adipose tissue to buffer the daily influx of nutrients is overwhelmed (or absent), interfering with insulin-mediated glucose disposal and leading to insulin resistance. Polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 family play an important role in modulating insulin signalling and glucose uptake by peripheral tissue. The increasing demand on these fatty acids for milk fat synthesis towards late lactation may result in deficiency in the lactating female, thus impairing glucose disposal. It is suggested that the underlying cause of mink nursing sickness is the development of acquired insulin resistance with 3 contributing key elements: obesity (or lipodystrophy), n-3 fatty acid deficiency, and high protein oxidation rate. It is recommended that mink breeder females be kept in moderate body condition during fall and winter to avoid fattening or emaciation. A dietary n-3 fatty acid supplement during the lactation period may be beneficial for improved glycemic control. Lowering of dietary protein reduces (oxidative) stress and improves water balance in the nursing females and may, therefore, prevent the development and help in the management of nursing sickness. It is also surmised that other, thus far unexplained, metabolic disorders seen in male and female mink may be related to acquired insulin resistance.

[Life threatening metabolic disorders after application of a sodium phosphate containing enema in the dog and cat]. / Lebensbedrohliche Stoffwechselstörungen nach Applikation eines Natriumphosphat-haltigen Klistiers bei Hund und Katze.

Application of a sodium phosphate containing enema caused life-threatening metabolic disorders in a Dachshund and two cats. Clinical signs were characterised by dehydration and various neurological deficits including seizures. Most striking laboratory abnormalities were hypernatremia, hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and polycythemia. Despite intensive treatment the dog died, whereas the cats recovered completely. In face of possible severe and potentially fatal metabolic abnormalities sodium phosphate enemas, such as Practo-Clyss, should be used with caution or not at all in cats and small dogs.

Drought associated poisoning of cattle in South Texas by the high quality forage legume Leucaena leucocephala.

Approximately 80 head of yearling cattle grazing on 680 acres exhibited signs of Leucaena leucocephala toxicosis, which was confirmed in 3 animals by detection of 3-hydroxy-4 (IH)-pyridone, the metabolite of the poisonous principle mimosine, in their urine. The animals had grazed leucaena almost exclusively due to lack of alternative forage resulting from drought conditions. Toxicosis from this otherwise high quality forage would likely not have occurred had animals consumed lower amounts of leucaena and could probably have been prevented, as it has been elsewhere, had the animals been colonized with Synergistes jonesii, a beneficial ruminal bacterium capable of degrading the toxic metabolites.

Nutritional support for treatment of hepatic lipidosis in a llama.

A 3-year-old female llama that was 3 months into her first lactation and 10 weeks pregnant was evaluated for anorexia of 24 hours' duration. On physical examination, the llama was in lateral recumbency, bradycardic, tachypneic, and hyperthermic. Palpation per rectum confirmed the presence of a possible dry fecal mass in the spiral colon. A tissue biopsy specimen of the liver was obtained, and histologic examination revealed moderate diffuse lipid accumulation within the hepatocytes. Lactated Ringer's solution was administered for rehydration, and partial parenteral nutrition was then initiated. Hepatic lipidosis is a disease characterized by abnormal accumulation of lipid in the liver and is associated with high mortality in camelids. Anorexia associated with hepatic lipidosis promotes further lipid mobilization and fatty infiltration of the liver. Partial parenteral nutrition with enteral supplementation may be used to maintain adequate energy intake and minimize further lipid mobilization. The distinctive metabolism of camelids may require higher amino acid supplementation relative to nonprotein calories in parenteral solutions than those traditionally provided to other species. Treatment with insulin may be effective

Fluid therapy in mature cattle.

Fluid therapy is practical and beneficial when properly administered to cattle. Mature cattle are more frequently alkalotic than acidotic, so nonalkalizing solutions are usually indicated. Exceptions include cattle with choke, carbohydrate engorgement, diabetes mellitus, and occasionally, renal disease, diarrhea, and fatty liver/ketosis. Many dehydrated cattle need supplemental potassium and calcium as well as sodium, chloride, and water. Intravenous administration is indicated in patients with obstructive gastrointestinal disease and those with severe dehydration. Oral or intraruminal administration is less expensive and, often, very effective.

Pregnancy toxemia in the European ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Pregnancy toxemia may lead to appreciable mortality among jills and their offspring. The objective of this report was to increase awareness of the disease, its likely cause, and practical prevention and treatment measures. METHODS: Ten cases of pregnancy toxemia were evaluated. Jills were in late gestation (mean, 38 days; range, 34 to 42 days) and had large litters (mean, 11.5 kits; range, 7 to 15 kits). RESULTS: The most common clinical signs of disease were lethargy, inappetence, dehydration, and excess shedding. Hematologic and clinical biochemical abnormalities included anemia (4 of 8 jills tested), hypoproteinemia (5 of 7), azotemia (7 of 7), hypocalcemia (5 of 6), hyperbilirubinemia (3 of 3), and high liver enzyme activities (6 of 6). Two jills were found dead; two jills were euthanized, six received supportive treatment, and cesarean section was performed on five. The three jills that survived tended to have less pronounced azotemia, hypoproteinemia, and liver enzyme activity increases and were not anemic. Hepatic lipidosis was observed grossly in all jills that died and was confirmed by histologic examination in four jills. CONCLUSIONS: Pregnancy toxemia in ferrets resembles metabolic diseases in several other animal species and requires aggressive treatment, including supportive care, nutritional supplementation, and cesarean section. Maintaining adequate nutrition and avoiding stress late in gestation may prevent the disease.

Induced diarrhoea in horses. Part 1: Fluid and electrolyte balance.

Sodium, potassium and water balance, and measurements of acid-base status, haematocrit, packed cell volume and plasma total protein, were studied in four adult standardbred geldings following castor oil induced diarrhoea. Castor oil (2 mL kg-1) administration resulted in signs consistent with mild to moderate acute colitis. The total (combined faecal and urinary losses) losses of sodium and potassium ions were 2169 and 2864 mmol, respectively. Faeces constituted the major route for sodium loss, while urine was the major route for potassium loss at all times. Faecal dry matter potassium concentration did not vary significantly at any stage. Faecal dry matter sodium concentration increased significantly, coinciding with the onset of clinical diarrhoea. Faecal water loss increased significantly from 2.15 +/- 0.44 mL kg-1 h-1 to 5.15 +/- 0.92 mL kg-1 h-1 while clinical diarrhoea was observed. While plasma volume (PV) did not vary significantly in this study, there was a trend for PV to decrease while horses were clinically dehydrated.

Diagnosis and treatment of metabolic acidosis in calves: a field study.

The history and results of a clinical examination were recorded for 32 spring-born suckler calves which were hospitalised for intravenous fluid therapy. Blood samples were taken before treatment, during treatment and before discharge and analysed for colostral status, total carbon dioxide as an indication of acid-base status, and haematocrit. All the calves were given intravenously 5 to 10 litres of electrolyte solution containing 144 mmol/litre sodium, 4 mmol/litre potassium, 113 mmol/litre chloride and 35 mmol/litre bicarbonate, supplemented, in 24 calves, with up to 450 ml of 1M sodium bicarbonate. Nearly all the calves were recumbent but less than half were dehydrated on admission. The signs of dehydration were well correlated with each other and with the haematocrit. Neither the history nor the clinical signs were useful predictors of acidosis. There was no relationship between the severity of acidosis and the degree of dehydration. Acidosis was more prevalent in older calves (P < 0.01). For the severely acidotic calves, supplementary intravenous fluid with sodium bicarbonate significantly (P < 0.05) improved the total blood carbon dioxide at discharge. All 32 calves recovered. It is possible to treat acidotic calves with intravenous fluid therapy effectively, economically and according to their individual needs. The Harleco apparatus is a simple, useful, cost-effective adjunct to the diagnosis and treatment of this life-threatening condition.

Fluid therapy in mature cattle.

Fluid therapy is practical and beneficial when properly administered to cattle. Mature cattle are more frequently alkalotic than acidotic, so nonalkalizing solutions are usually indicated. Exceptions include cattle with choke, carbohydrate engorgement, diabetes mellitus, and, occasionally, renal disease, diarrhea, and fatty liver/ketosis. Most dehydrated cattle need supplemental potassium and calcium as well as sodium, chloride, and water. Intravenous administration is indicated in patients with obstructive gastrointestinal disease and those with severe dehydration. Oral or intraruminal administration is less expensive and often very effective.

Ochratoxin A and citrinin induced nephrosis in Beagle dogs. I. Clinical and clinicopathological features.

Ochratoxin A and citrinin, both mycotoxins, were given separately and combined to young Beagle dogs for 14 days. Ochratoxin A, 0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg, was given by capsule, and citrinin, 5 and 10 mg/kg, was dissolved in ethanol and given by intraperitoneal injection. Clinical signs of toxicosis in dogs given 10 mg/kg citrinin and the higher combined doses included anorexia, retching, tenesmus, weight loss, prostration and death. Severity of the clinical disease and mortality were increased when the mycotoxins were combined, which indicated synergism. The clinicopathological abnormalities reflected renal damage, in that glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and lactic dehydrogenase increased in the urine of the dogs with clinical signs of poisoning. Serum lactic dehydrogenase was increased in dogs given 10 mg/kg citrinin. Cellular and granular casts, ketones, protein and glucose were in the urine of dogs given large doses of citrinin alone or combined with ochratoxin A. Serum concentrations of sodium, potassium and chloride in the dogs given high doses of each group.

Treatment and control of neonatal diarrhea in calves.

Treatment and control of acute neonatal diarrhea in calves are outlined and discussed. The difficulty in making a definitive etiological diagnosis makes effective treatment and control also difficult and largely empirical. Physiological events in calves with diarrhea are known, and fluid therapy is directed toward treating dehydration and acidosis. Whether affected calves should receive antibacterial agents orally is an open question. Principles of control of diarrhea in calves are outlined and discussed.