['A case of decapitation'; calamity investigation in 1822]. / 'Het geval van onthoofting'.

A case of childbirth with a fatal outcome described in the book 'The King's Court Physician: the Adventurous Life of Franz Joseph Harbaur, 1776-1822' (De lijfarts van de koning. Het avontuurlijkeleven van Franz Joseph Harbaur, 1776-1822) puts the work of the Dutch Health and Youth Care Inspectorate into an historical context by pointing out the similarities between a calamity investigation held in 1822 and the situation today. Conflicts between medical disciplinary law and criminal law, boundary disputes between various professions (in this particular case midwives and gynaecologists) and questions of openness and transparency turn out to be nothing new. By doing case studies on how to deal with calamities, it is possible to gain insight into medical failures of the past and how they were managed. It is also possible to get a better picture of the expectations that medicine had to meet in the past, and how, and under what circumstances, these have changed. This information is of value in making choices in today's healthcare system.

[Hitupmã'ax: intercultural education and specific health care for the Maxakali people]. / Hitupmã'ax: educação intercultural e atendimento diferenciado à saúde do povo maxakali.

This study analyzed an artifact (a book on health) conceived by the Maxakali people, called Hitupmã'ax: curar (2008). Parallel to the project for the production of this book, the aim was to understand the negotiation of public health in Brazil from a historical and intercultural perspective of non-Western epistemologies. It was found that the construction of the Maxakali work represented an effort to bridge the gap in the perception of health and health care between indigenous and non-indigenous people. This was then used to demonstrate the importance of this intercultural project for the shaping of public policies for indigenous people in general and particularly for the promotion of the history, knowledge, and culture of the Maxakali people.

Este trabalho analisou um artefato (um livro de saúde) concebido pelo povo maxakali, denominado Hitupmã'ax: curar (2008). Tangenciado o projeto de produção do livro, o objetivo foi entender o processo de negociação da saúde pública no Brasil, dentro de uma perspectiva histórica e intercultural das epistemologias não ocidentais. Constatamos que a construção da obra maxakali representa um esforço para diminuir a distância da percepção e dos cuidados de saúde entre indígenas e não indígenas, e por essa via demonstramos a importância desse projeto intercultural para a efetivação de políticas públicas voltadas para o público indígena em geral e, especificamenete, para a promoção da história, dos saberes e da cultura maxakali.

Hitupmã'ax: educação intercultural e atendimento diferenciado à saúde do povo maxakali / Hitupmã'ax: intercultural education and specific health care for the Maxakali people

Resumo Este trabalho analisou um artefato (um livro de saúde) concebido pelo povo maxakali, denominado Hitupmã'ax: curar (2008). Tangenciado o projeto de produção do livro, o objetivo foi entender o processo de negociação da saúde pública no Brasil, dentro de uma perspectiva histórica e intercultural das epistemologias não ocidentais. Constatamos que a construção da obra maxakali representa um esforço para diminuir a distância da percepção e dos cuidados de saúde entre indígenas e não indígenas, e por essa via demonstramos a importância desse projeto intercultural para a efetivação de políticas públicas voltadas para o público indígena em geral e, especificamenete, para a promoção da história, dos saberes e da cultura maxakali.

Abstract This study analyzed an artifact (a book on health) conceived by the Maxakali people, called Hitupmã'ax: curar (2008). Parallel to the project for the production of this book, the aim was to understand the negotiation of public health in Brazil from a historical and intercultural perspective of non-Western epistemologies. It was found that the construction of the Maxakali work represented an effort to bridge the gap in the perception of health and health care between indigenous and non-indigenous people. This was then used to demonstrate the importance of this intercultural project for the shaping of public policies for indigenous people in general and particularly for the promotion of the history, knowledge, and culture of the Maxakali people.

La atención a la salud en Mesoamérica antes y después de 1519 / Health care in Mesoamerica before and after 1519

Resumen En este ensayo se discute la situación de la atención a la salud en Mesoamérica antes e inmediatamente después de 1519. En los primeros 50 años después de la Conquista, los españoles hicieron un uso muy extensivo de la medicina náhuatl. Sin embargo, con el tiempo, el ámbito de influencia de esta tradición se vio limitado debido a la rápida imposición de un sistema de atención muy diferente que poco aprovechó, entre otras cosas, la riqueza terapéutica de la medicina prehispánica.

Abstract This paper discusses the situation of healthcare in Mesoamerica before and immediately after 1519. In the first 50 years after the Conquest, the Spaniards made extensive use of Nahuatl medicine. However, the influence of this medical tradition was limited due to the rapid imposition of a very different medical system which took little advantage of, among other things, the therapeutic wealth of pre-Hispanic healing traditions.

[Health care in Mesoamerica before and after 1519]. / La atención a la salud en Mesoamérica antes y después de 1519.

This paper discusses the situation of healthcare in Mesoamerica before and immediately after 1519. In the first 50 years after the Conquest, the Spaniards made extensive use of Nahuatl medicine. However, the influence of this medical tradition was limited due to the rapid imposition of a very different medical system which took little advantage of, among other things, the therapeutic wealth of pre-Hispanic healing traditions.

En este ensayo se discute la situación de la atención a la salud en Mesoamérica antes e inmediatamente después de 1519. En los primeros 50 años después de la Conquista, los españoles hicieron un uso muy extensivo de la medicina náhuatl. Sin embargo, con el tiempo, el ámbito de influencia de esta tradición se vio limitado debido a la rápida imposición de un sistema de atención muy diferente que poco aprovechó, entre otras cosas, la riqueza terapéutica de la medicina prehispánica.

Samuel Thomson's Crusade: Populism, Folk Remedy, and Tradition in Timothy Flint and Catharine Maria Sedgwick.

The early nineteenth century saw a rise in both trained and untrained physicians in the United States. Practitioners such as Samuel Thomson railed against what he viewed as "learned quackery"; trained doctors who were nevertheless incompetent when it came to treatment. Meanwhile, literary output reflected this conflict in the ways in which it depicted medicine and physicians. Notably, Timothy Flint and Catharine Maria Sedgwick both examined approaches to self-care that complicated notions of what it meant to be a trained physician in a rapidly expanding America. Flint and Sedgwick's readership were aware of the fractures in the medical community and read these pieces not only for entertainment, but also as arguments for what might be considered evolving responsible medical practice.

[Governance and stewardship of quality in health services in Peru]. / Gobernanza y rectoría de la calidad en los servicios de salud en el Perú.

The care of people and their health is a primary function of the family and of society as shown by studies on primitive humans, as well as in pre-Hispanic Peru. The conquest and subsequent centuries of colonization fractured the traditional way of caring for people, replacing social solidarity with charity actions mainly from religious orders that provided hospices later called hospitals. During the colony and until the beginning of the 20th century, the care of the sick continued to be the responsibility of charitable institutions, such as the Charities created after independence. Social rights such as education and health only emerged in the first decades of the last century and were enshrined in the 1933 Constitution. However, both in that Constitution as in those from 1979 and 1993, the right to education was recognized more fully, while the right to heath was limited. The Universal Health Coverage Act of 2009 propounds guaranteeing the right to access quality healthcare services for everybody, as part of the right to health in the broadest sense. The current limitations force us to redefine the right of every citizen to comprehensive care of their health and the State's guidance to guarantee it.

El cuidado de las personas y de su salud es una función primaria de la familia y de la sociedad como lo demuestran estudios sobre los humanos primitivos, así como en el Perú prehispánico. La conquista y los siglos posteriores de colonización quebraron la forma tradicional del cuidado de las personas, reemplazando la solidaridad social por acciones de caridad principalmente de órdenes religiosas que propiciaron hospicios luego denominados hospitales. Durante la colonia y hasta principios del siglo XX el cuidado de los enfermos siguió siendo responsabilidad de las instituciones de caridad, como las Beneficencias creadas luego de la independencia. Los derechos sociales como la educación y la salud recién surgen en las primeras décadas del pasado siglo, plasmándose en la Constitución de 1933. Sin embargo, tanto en esa Constitución como en la de 1979 y la de 1993 el derecho a la educación fue reconocido más plenamente, siendo más limitado en salud. La ley de Aseguramiento Universal en Salud del 2009 propone garantizar para todos el derecho al acceso a servicios de salud con calidad, como parte del derecho a la salud en sentido amplio. Las limitaciones actuales obligan a redefinir el derecho de todas las personas al cuidado integral de su salud y la rectoría del Estado para garantizarlo.

Gobernanza y rectoría de la calidad en los servicios de salud en el Perú / Governance and stewardship of quality in health services in Peru

RESUMEN El cuidado de las personas y de su salud es una función primaria de la familia y de la sociedad como lo demuestran estudios sobre los humanos primitivos, así como en el Perú prehispánico. La conquista y los siglos posteriores de colonización quebraron la forma tradicional del cuidado de las personas, reemplazando la solidaridad social por acciones de caridad principalmente de órdenes religiosas que propiciaron hospicios luego denominados hospitales. Durante la colonia y hasta principios del siglo XX el cuidado de los enfermos siguió siendo responsabilidad de las instituciones de caridad, como las Beneficencias creadas luego de la independencia. Los derechos sociales como la educación y la salud recién surgen en las primeras décadas del pasado siglo, plasmándose en la Constitución de 1933. Sin embargo, tanto en esa Constitución como en la de 1979 y la de 1993 el derecho a la educación fue reconocido más plenamente, siendo más limitado en salud. La ley de Aseguramiento Universal en Salud del 2009 propone garantizar para todos el derecho al acceso a servicios de salud con calidad, como parte del derecho a la salud en sentido amplio. Las limitaciones actuales obligan a redefinir el derecho de todas las personas al cuidado integral de su salud y la rectoría del Estado para garantizarlo.

ABSTRACT The care of people and their health is a primary function of the family and of society as shown by studies on primitive humans, as well as in pre-Hispanic Peru. The conquest and subsequent centuries of colonization fractured the traditional way of caring for people, replacing social solidarity with charity actions mainly from religious orders that provided hospices later called hospitals. During the colony and until the beginning of the 20th century, the care of the sick continued to be the responsibility of charitable institutions, such as the Charities created after independence. Social rights such as education and health only emerged in the first decades of the last century and were enshrined in the 1933 Constitution. However, both in that Constitution as in those from 1979 and 1993, the right to education was recognized more fully, while the right to heath was limited. The Universal Health Coverage Act of 2009 propounds guaranteeing the right to access quality healthcare services for everybody, as part of the right to health in the broadest sense. The current limitations force us to redefine the right of every citizen to comprehensive care of their health and the State's guidance to guarantee it.

[The organization of medical care in the mining and smelting okrugs of the Kama Vyatka region in the pre-reform period (end of XVIII-first half of XIX centuries)].

The article considers becoming of professional medical care in mining and smelting okrugs of the Kama Vyatka region in the pre-reform period (end of XVIII-first half of XIX centuries). The analysis is presented concerning the history of organization in the Kray of hospitals of mining and military departments, sources of financing, provision of curative institutions with medications and active storages, solution of personnel problem, interaction between factorial administration and medical personnel, curative preventive and educational activities of physicians, struggle with smallpox and other epidemiological diseases, counteraction to "traditional medicine", effectiveness of functioning of health care institutions. The conclusions are made that development of medical care during studied period was accompanied by number of such predicaments as material equipping, training and mobilization of specialists, roominess of hospitals (i.e. obvious deficiency in physicians and beds per capita was observed). To the end of studied period hospitals at industrials settlements functioned stably as an integral part of ramified system of establishments of social infrastructure of the Ural.

[Machines and artisanal health workers]. / Máquinas y arte-sanos.

This work discusses the dominant models and tensions within the health field regarding the conceptualization of the human body (as a machine), the process of health work (industrial and artisanal models), institutions (hospitals and health centers) and primary agents (the medical corporation and the medical industrial complex). The context of analysis is the United States from the end of the 19th century to the present. Economic-political, ideological-cultural, and scientific-technical dimensions are discussed, which permeate the historicity of the field. The purpose is to illustrate how the health field has transformed over time, as well as the role instrumental reason and financial capital has played in this process, to the detriment of relational aspects.

Este trabajo discute los modelos dominantes y las tensiones, al interior del campo de la salud, entre la concepción del cuerpo humano (máquina); el proceso de trabajo médico (modelos industriales o artesanales); las institucionalidades (hospitales y centros de salud) y los principales agentes (corporación médica y complejo médico industrial). El análisis se contextualiza en EEUU desde fines del siglo XIX a la actualidad. Se discuten dimensiones económico-políticas, ideológico-culturales y científico-técnicas, que atraviesan la historicidad del campo. El propósito es elucidar cómo se viene transformando el campo de la salud, y qué peso tiene la razón instrumental y el capital financiero en ese proceso, en detrimento de lo relacional.

Santayana's Axiom: The South Dakota State Medical Association and Medical Practice Legislation in 1929 and 2017.

In 1928 members of the South Dakota State Medical Association (SDSMA or the Association) held a special meeting in Huron to consider a basic science bill that conformed "…in its entirety to the conditions existing in our state." Their draft bill proposed a standardized examination for all practitioners of the healing arts. A legislative committee, with its attorney, "…was in Pierre during the early part of the 1929 legislative session to make sure the bill was properly launched and in effective channels." Shortly after its introduction, the bill was withdrawn due to opposition from one SDSMA district whose legislative representatives were among the most influential in the legislature. A similar bill promoted by the SDSMA in 1933 also failed. It would be another six years before a basic science bill was enacted by the legislature. Eighty-nine years later, a bill governing the practice of certified nurse practitioners (NP) and certified nurse midwives (NM), including a board independent of the South Dakota Board of Medical and Osteopathic Examiners, was considered (Senate Bill 61). Introduced by a senator who characterized herself as representing the "House of Nursing," the bill challenged "…the overarching role that medicine thinks and perceives that they may have regarding advanced practice nursing practice." SB 61 passed in the senate and house and was signed by the governor. For this legislation in the 1930s and in 2017, the SDSMA's interest was defining and maintaining control of medical practice under the twin rubrics of quality and patient welfare. In both circumstances, legislators and other health care professional organizations contested not only the SDSMA's motivations, but also the evidence supporting their efforts. Our research explored (1) whether the collective viewpoints and conduct of the legislature, the SDSMA, and non-physician medical professionals are comparable in the two circumstances; and (2) if the circumstances are comparable, can we derive a useful concept or theme that could help guide the SDSMA in the future?

Máquinas y arte-sanos / Machines and artisanal health workers

RESUMEN Este trabajo discute los modelos dominantes y las tensiones, al interior del campo de la salud, entre la concepción del cuerpo humano (máquina); el proceso de trabajo médico (modelos industriales o artesanales); las institucionalidades (hospitales y centros de salud) y los principales agentes (corporación médica y complejo médico industrial). El análisis se contextualiza en EEUU desde fines del siglo XIX a la actualidad. Se discuten dimensiones económico-políticas, ideológico-culturales y científico-técnicas, que atraviesan la historicidad del campo. El propósito es elucidar cómo se viene transformando el campo de la salud, y qué peso tiene la razón instrumental y el capital financiero en ese proceso, en detrimento de lo relacional.

ABSTRACT This work discusses the dominant models and tensions within the health field regarding the conceptualization of the human body (as a machine), the process of health work (industrial and artisanal models), institutions (hospitals and health centers) and primary agents (the medical corporation and the medical industrial complex). The context of analysis is the United States from the end of the 19th century to the present. Economic-political, ideological-cultural, and scientific-technical dimensions are discussed, which permeate the historicity of the field. The purpose is to illustrate how the health field has transformed over time, as well as the role instrumental reason and financial capital has played in this process, to the detriment of relational aspects.

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the First Part.

The time interval from the 9th to the 13th century remained known as the "Golden period of the Arab science", and a significant place among the taught sciences are occupied by Medicine and Pharmacy. In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, also known as Arabic medicine, refers to the science of medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic Arabs were able to use their cultural and natural resources and trade links to contribute to the strong development of pharmacy. After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances, thanks to the Turks, Arab culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant role in the transfer of Arabic medical and pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arab component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Health during the Cardenismo (1934-1940). / La salud durante el Cardenismo (1934-1940).

The present symposium, Health during the Cardenismo (1934-1940), consist of four studies: Medical sanitary aspects in Mexico by Martha Eugenia Rodríguez; Campaigns against diseases by Carlos Viesca Treviño; Hospitals during Cardenism by Guillermo Fajardo Ortiz; and Military medicine in Mexico by Antonio Moreno Guzmán. Through them is given an integral vision of the state of health and illness during the administration of General Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, the first sexennial presidential government of the twentieth century. Several aspects are discussed, among them, the President's nationalist policy which led to an important distribution of land to the peasants. His education policy originated, among other things, the creation of the National Polytechnic Institute that framed two medical schools, the National Homeopathic Medicine and the Superior of Rural Medicine. The social service for medical interns of the UNAM was created. On the other hand, General Cárdenas placed special emphasis on preventive and care medicine. In addition to organizing campaigns against multiple diseases, including pox, typhus, tuberculosis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases, special attention was given to maternal and child care. An urgent problem was that of malnutrition, so special care was taken in the child and peasant population. Likewise, in order to attend to morbidity, in the period 1934-1940, general and specialty hospitals were set up under government, private, military, and private charitable institutions. The last study that is presented refers to the military health modernization initiatives initiated by General Cárdenas, that had repercussions on the health of the military and its successors.

Barefoot Doctors and the "Health Care Revolution" in Rural China: A Study Centered on Shandong Province.

Barefoot doctors were rural medical personnel trained en masse, whose emergence and development had a particular political, economic, social, and cultural background. Like the rural cooperative medical care system, the barefoot doctor was a well-known phenomenon in the Cultural Revolution. Complicated regional differences and a lack of reliable sources create much difficulty for the study of barefoot doctors and result in differing opinions of their status and importance. Some scholars greatly admire barefoot doctors, whereas others harshly criticize them. This paper explores the rise and development of barefoot doctors based on a case study of Shandong province. I argue that the promotion of barefoot doctors was a consequence of the medical education revolution and an implementation of the Cultural Revolution in rural public health care, which significantly influenced medical services and development in rural areas. First, barefoot doctors played a significant role in accomplishing the first rural health care revolution by providing primary health care to peasants and eliminating endemic and infectious illnesses. Second, barefoot doctors were the agents who integrated Western and Chinese medicines under the direction of the state. As an essential part of the rural cooperative medical system, barefoot doctor personnel grew in number with the system's implementation. After the Cultural Revolution ended, the cooperative medical system began to disintegrate-a process that accelerated in the 1980s until the system's collapse in the wake of the de-collectivization. As a result, the number of barefoot doctors also ran down steadily. In 1985, "barefoot doctor" as a job title was officially removed from Chinese medical profession, demonstrating that its practice was non-universal and unsustainable.

Health and health care in Israel: an introduction.

Starting well before Independence in 1948, and over the ensuing six decades, Israel has built a robust, relatively efficient public system of health care, resulting in good health statistics throughout the life course. Because of the initiative of people living under the British Mandate for Palestine (1922-48), the development of many of today's health services predated the state's establishment by several decades. An extensive array of high-quality services and technologies is available to all residents, largely free at point of service, via the promulgation of the 1994 National Health Insurance Law. In addition to a strong medical academic culture, well equipped (albeit crowded) hospitals, and a robust primary-care infrastructure, the country has also developed some model national projects such as a programme for community quality indicators, an annual update of the national basket of services, and a strong system of research and education. Challenges include increasing privatisation of what was once largely a public system, and the underfunding in various sectors resulting in, among other challenges, relatively few acute hospital beds. Despite substantial organisational and financial investment, disparities persist based on ethnic origin or religion, other socioeconomic factors, and, regardless of the country's small size, a geographic maldistribution of resources. The Ministry of Health continues to be involved in the ownership and administration of many general hospitals and the direct payment for some health services (eg, geriatric institutional care), activities that distract it from its main task of planning for and supervising the whole health structure. Although the health-care system itself is very well integrated in relation to the country's two main ethnic groups (Israeli Arabs and Israeli Jews), we think that health in its widest sense might help provide a bridge to peace and reconciliation between the country and its neighbours.

Contribution of Arabic Medicine and Pharmacy to the Development of Health Care Protection in Bosnia and Herzegovina - the Second Part.

After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances. Thanks to the Turks, Arabic culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). Significant role in the transfer of Arabic pharmaceutical knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arabic component in a specific way was intertwined with other cultures and traditions of B&H. The Franciscan monasteries in Bosnia and Herzegovina have museums which contain important exhibits and libraries rich in books, among which many from the field of medicine and pharmacy. Muslim mosques, also, had small libraries with Arabic books used for spreading medical knowledge. The second category was folk doctors and practitioners who were on disposition to the people of any religion. Some of them listened to lectures in medicine during the studies of theology and philosophy. However, most did not have any medical education, but by reading books and teaching experience they made their own recipe collection. Special books, called "Ljekaruse" (Books of recipes) were also born during the study when they came into contact with an even larger number of health books. However, it should not be neglected that a lot of them contained folk medicines that were used in some environments depending on the habits and available herbs. Although it has been proven that many recipes from Ljekaruse are pharmacologically and medically justified, one should not ignore the knowledge and skill behind them. The true flowering of medicine in B&H happening thanks to graduate doctors in Italy, Austria, Hungary, Turkey, etc. Through their action, in a short time, they greatly improved health in B&H, educated the population. The Franciscans were important because they opened the first open-air clinics, the first pharmacies, and wrote the first pharmacopoeia and regulations for the work of health care institutions. Numerous works preserved in monasteries have mostly brought about the study in only one or two copies. Their contribution to the development of health care and the prevention of illness and treatment of the population in B&H during that period is very significant.

Medicine, Empires, and Ethics in Colonial Africa.

This essay examines the history of European empire building and health work in sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on four patterns that shed light on the ethics of outside interventions: (1) the epidemiological and bodily harms caused by conquest and economic development; (2) the uneven and inadequate health infrastructures established during the colonial era, including certain iatrogenic consequences; (3) the ethical ambiguities and transgressions of colonial research and treatment campaigns; and (4) the concerted and inadvertent efforts to undermine African healing practices, which were not always commensurable with introduced medical techniques. This kind of historical analysis helps us home in on different kinds of ethical problems that have grown out of past asymmetries of power-between people, professions, states, and institutions-that shape the nature of international health systems to this day.