Causes, consequences, and policy responses to the migration of health workers: key findings from India.

BACKGROUND: This study sought to better understand the drivers of skilled health professional migration, its consequences, and the various strategies countries have employed to mitigate its negative impacts. The study was conducted in four countries-Jamaica, India, the Philippines, and South Africa-that have historically been "sources" of health workers migrating to other countries. The aim of this paper is to present the findings from the Indian portion of the study. METHODS: Data were collected using surveys of Indian generalist and specialist physicians, nurses, midwives, dentists, pharmacists, dieticians, and other allied health therapists. We also conducted structured interviews with key stakeholders representing government ministries, professional associations, regional health authorities, health care facilities, and educational institutions. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression models. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically. RESULTS: Shortages of health workers are evident in certain parts of India and in certain specialty areas, but the degree and nature of such shortages are difficult to determine due to the lack of evidence and health information. The relationship of such shortages to international migration is not clear. Policy responses to health worker migration are also similarly embedded in wider processes aimed at health workforce management, but overall, there is no clear policy agenda to manage health worker migration. Decision-makers in India present conflicting options about the need or desirability of curtailing migration. CONCLUSIONS: Consequences of health work migration on the Indian health care system are not easily discernable from other compounding factors. Research suggests that shortages of skilled health workers in India must be examined in relation to domestic policies on training, recruitment, and retention rather than viewed as a direct consequence of the international migration of health workers.

Pediatric Dentist Density and Preventive Care Utilization for Medicaid Children.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate county-level pediatric dentist density and dental care utilization for Medicaid-enrolled children. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional analysis of 604,885 zero- to 17-year-olds enrolled in the Washington State Medicaid Program for 11-12 months in 2012. The relationship between county-level pediatric dentist density, defined as the number of pediatric dentists per 10,000 Medicaid-enrolled children, and preventive dental care utilization was evaluated using linear regression models. RESULTS: In 2012, 179 pediatric dentists practiced in 16 of the 39 counties in Washington. County-level pediatric dentist density varied from zero to 5.98 pediatric dentists per 10,000 Medicaid-enrolled children. County-level preventive dental care utilization ranged from 32 percent to 81 percent, with 62 percent of Medicaid-enrolled children utilizing preventive dental services. County-level density was significantly associated with county-level dental care utilization (Slope equals 1.67, 95 percent confidence interval equals 0.02, 3.32, P<.05). CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant relationship between pediatric dentist density and the proportion of Medicaid-enrolled children who utilize preventive dental care services. Policies aimed at improving pediatric oral health disparities should include strategies to increase the number of oral health care providers, including pediatric dentists, in geographic areas with large proportions of Medicaid-enrolled children.

Status of the dental health care workforce in Shanghai, China.

OBJECTIVES: The status of the dental health care workforce in Shanghai was investigated in order to support and improve regional planning of this workforce. METHODS: Questionnaires were used to survey all dental medical units in Shanghai. Data were collected on the quantity, structure and levels of dental health personnel. RESULTS: A total of 852 dental medical units and 3,218 dentists were identified in Shanghai. The ratio of dentists to population is 1 : 5,201. CONCLUSIONS: Presently, the total dental health workforce in Shanghai is relatively sufficient, but its distribution is inequitable because there are fewer dental health personnel employed in the suburbs. Moreover, the structure of the dental health workforce in Shanghai is inequitable and specialists in preventive dentistry are lacking. The results of this study can be applied to help Shanghai achieve the rational distribution and efficient utilisation of the dental health workforce available.

[Socioeconomic indicators and oral health services in an underprivileged area of Brazil]. / Indicadores socioeconômicos e serviços odontológicos em uma região brasileira desfavorecida.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between the proportion of tooth extractions, socioeconomic indicators, and the availability of oral health services in an underprivileged area of Brazil. METHODS: An ecological study was carried out in 52 municipalities in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The socioeconomic indicators employed were criteria for health care resources allocation, municipal human development index, Theil index, Gini coefficient, and sanitation conditions. Concerning the availability of oral health services, the following were considered: number of inhabitants, number of dental surgeons living in the city, number of dentists working in the public services, and number of municipal oral health care teams. The utilization of oral health services was evaluated using the indicators recommended by the Health Ministry's Basic Care Package (Pacto da Atencão Básica in Portuguese) and the number of procedures carried out in the primary care setting. The 17 variables assessed were grouped into factorial components, which were then analyzed in terms of their relationship with the dependent variable, tooth extractions. RESULTS: The following six components explained 73.5% of the overall variance: socioeconomic conditions, social inequality, Basic Care Package indicators, number of procedures carried out, ratio of dentists to inhabitants, and coverage of the Family Health Strategy. Inequalities in income distribution (P = 0.031) and coverage by the Family Health Strategy (P = 0.015) contributed significantly to explain the difference in the proportion of tooth extractions in the different municipalities under study. CONCLUSIONS: The dental loss observed in the region is largely explained by socioeconomic factors and aspects related to the organization of oral health services.

Indicadores socioeconômicos e serviços odontológicos em uma região brasileira desfavorecida / Socioeconomic indicators and oral health services in an underprivileged area of Brazil

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a associação entre proporção de exodontias, indicadores socioeconômicos e oferta de serviços odontológicos em uma região desfavorecida do Brasil. MÉTODOS: Um estudo ecológico foi realizado em 52 municípios do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. Os indicadores socioeconômicos utilizados foram os critérios de alocação de recursos financeiros destinados à saúde, os índices de desenvolvimento humano municipal, de Theil e de Gini e as condições de saneamento. Em relação à oferta de serviços de saúde bucal, foram considerados o número de habitantes, o número de cirurgiões-dentistas residentes no município, o número de dentistas que trabalhavam no serviço público e o número de equipes de saúde bucal. A utilização de serviços foi avaliada pelos indicadores de saúde bucal preconizados pelo Pacto da Atenção Básica e pelo número de procedimentos realizados na atenção primária. As 17 variáveis avaliadas foram agrupadas em componentes. Analisou-se a relação entre esses componentes fatoriais e a variável dependente, proporção de exodontias. RESULTADOS: As variáveis foram agrupadas em seis componentes (condições socioeconômicas, desigualdades sociais, indicadores do Pacto da Atenção Básica, número de procedimentos realizados, razão dentistas:população, cobertura da Estratégia Saúde da Família) que explicaram, no conjunto, 73,5% da variância total. As desigualdades na distribuição de renda (P = 0,031) e a cobertura da Estratégia Saúde da Família (P = 0,015) tiveram significativamente maior peso para explicar a diferença na proporção de exodontias realizadas nos municípios estudados. CONCLUSÕES: Os fatores socioeconômicos e de organização dos serviços de saúde bucal explicam grande parte da mutilação dentária nessa região.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between the proportion of tooth extractions, socioeconomic indicators, and the availability of oral health services in an underprivileged area of Brazil. METHODS: An ecological study was carried out in 52 municipalities in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The socioeconomic indicators employed were criteria for health care resources allocation, municipal human development index, Theil index, Gini coefficient, and sanitation conditions. Concerning the availability of oral health services, the following were considered: number of inhabitants, number of dental surgeons living in the city, number of dentists working in the public services, and number of municipal oral health care teams. The utilization of oral health services was evaluated using the indicators recommended by the Health Ministry's Basic Care Package (Pacto da Atencão Básica in Portuguese) and the number of procedures carried out in the primary care setting. The 17 variables assessed were grouped into factorial components, which were then analyzed in terms of their relationship with the dependent variable, tooth extractions. RESULTS: The following six components explained 73.5% of the overall variance: socioeconomic conditions, social inequality, Basic Care Package indicators, number of procedures carried out, ratio of dentists to inhabitants, and coverage of the Family Health Strategy. Inequalities in income distribution (P = 0.031) and coverage by the Family Health Strategy (P = 0.015) contributed significantly to explain the difference in the proportion of tooth extractions in the different municipalities under study. CONCLUSIONS: The dental loss observed in the region is largely explained by socioeconomic factors and aspects related to the organization of oral health services.

Conceptual frameworks for understanding system capacity in the care of people with special health care needs.

This paper seeks to (1) identify strengths and weaknesses of the US health care system regarding oral care for persons with special needs; (2) provide a framework for understanding system capacity; and (3) describe the context within which dental care is provided in the United State. It explores a series of concepts that help explain the current lack of access for those with special needs and synthesizes options for improvement.

Systems issues workshop report.

The Systems Issues Workshop held November 18, 2006 in Chicago, Illinois, as part of the AAPD Symposium on Lifetime Oral Health Care for Patients with Special Needs, focused on health care systems that influence access to and the quality of dental care for persons with special health care needs (PSHCN). This paper summarizes the workshop discussion and presents recommendations to the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) regarding means of improving health care systems for PSHCN.

[25 years of INAMI data in dentistry]. / 25 années de données INAMI en Médecine Dentaire.

The author presents 25 years of social security data about expenses and the number of medical acts in dentistry using lists and diagrams. By relating these expenses per year to the number of dentists per year, the average expenses per dentist are compared to the evolution of the index of consumption. In the same manner the average number of medical acts per dentist are calculated. By this method the author emphasizes the changes in average dental practice profile over 25 years.

Oral healthcare in transition in Eastern Europe.

Big changes have occurred in the oral healthcare delivery systems of most Eastern European countries since the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 and the demise of communism in the former USSR in 1991. In the new situation it was necessary to reform the political and social systems including healthcare. Reforms were started to improve the economy and, in comparison with Western Europe, the generally lower living standards. It is difficult to obtain comprehensive data on oral healthcare in Eastern European countries but this paper reports data from nine countries and provides a 'macro' view of the current situation in these countries. Many countries seem to have adopted a Bismarckian model for the provision of oral healthcare based on a sickness insurance system.

Access to dental care for Head Start enrollees.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this review are to characterize the oral health and dental access of Head Start children, describe barriers to their care, advance strategies to address those barriers, and consider how Head Start Performance Standards can be utilized to maximize oral health and access to dental care. METHODS: Published, programmatic, and solicited data describing oral health status and dental service utilization are reviewed together with reports of conferences exploring access barriers. Head Start performance measures for child health and development services, child health and safety, family partnerships, and community partnerships are individually evaluated for their potential to improve oral health. RESULTS: Head Start children, like all low-income children, enjoy the highest rates of dental coverage (because of Medicaid and the State Child Health Insurance Program), yet these children also experience the highest rates of tooth decay, the most unmet dental care needs, the highest rates of dental pain, and the fewest dental visits. Getting children the dental care they need is problematic because of: multiple barriers associated with public and private dental delivery systems, Medicaid program funding and administration, dental workforce sufficiency and distribution, and issues of culture and communication that stand between parents, children, and caregivers. CONCLUSIONS: To move beyond screening and to access necessary dental care requires integration between medical and dental care, recognition and elimination of barriers to care, an understanding of dental provider types and their capacities, a formally structured referral process, and regular monitoring to ensure that complete care is obtained. Action steps are suggested that can maximize the effectiveness of Head Start Performance Standards. Head Start holds tremendous potential to actively develop and implement policies that can markedly improve both access to needed dental services and the oral health status of young disadvantaged children.

Dental nurse training in Cambodia--a new approach.

In 1993 a 4-5 month programme to train rural dental nurses in Cambodia was introduced. Courses have now been conducted in 12 of Cambodia's 22 provinces. The dental nurses are trained to provide simple treatment, including local anaesthetic, extractions, ART restorations, and scaling, for all age groups, and also learn how to introduce prevention and oral health promotion activities within their communities. On completion of training nurses are supplied with a set of basic instruments and some materials. Evaluation has shown the programme to be meeting the oral health needs of the rural people where there are no dentists and a number of unique strengths were identified. A recent planning workshop on oral health care in Cambodia to 2005 decided to set up a dental nurses training school in two provincial capitals, and to increase the number of nurses in training. At the same time the annual number of new dentists being trained will be limited to ten. The expansion of the dental nurses training programme will ensure that increasingly more of the population have access to basic preventive and curative dental care, and at a cost which the country can afford.

Future dental human resource needs--a qualitative approach.

As part of the National Oral Health Survey, dentists in private practice were asked to give their views and opinions on the future planning of human resource needs for South Africa. The data, which were qualitative in nature, yielded 2600 responses. After computing a frequency distribution of these responses it was possible to classify these data into five major categories. These were a) "too many dentists/fewer should be trained" b) "more dentists for developing areas" c) "more auxiliaries in general" d) "greater need for preventive and health education services" and e) "high cost of running and maintaining private dental practices". The predominant view was that fewer dentists and more auxiliaries should be trained, while the need for preventive and health education services received considerably less support.

Utilisation of dental services in Cambodia and the role of traditional dentists.

Cambodia has a small, but growing number of qualified dentists, as well as about 300 traditional dentists. This study describes the current level of utilisation of dental services in Cambodia in Phnom Penh and in 6 provincial areas. 548 adults aged 35-45 and 60-80 years of age were interviewed concerning previous dental attendance, type of service used and preference for qualified or traditional practitioner services. Only 38 per cent had ever had dental treatment, with 87 per cent of attenders last visiting the dentist because of toothache. Although 34 per cent of attenders received their last course of treatment from a traditional dentist, 77 per cent of all subjects said they would prefer to visit a qualified dentist if they had the choice. The role of traditional practitioners may therefore diminish as numbers of qualified dentists increase.