Admissions Is Not Enough: The Racial Achievement Gap in Medical Education.

The achievement gap is a disparity in academic and standardized test performance that exists between White and underrepresented minority (URM) students that begins as early as preschool and worsens as students progress through the educational system. Medical education is not immune to this inequality. URM medical students are more likely to experience delayed graduation and course failure, even after accounting for science grade point average and Medical College Admission Test performance. Moreover, URM students are more likely to earn lower scores on licensing examinations, which can have a significant impact on their career trajectory, including specialty choice and residency competitiveness. After the release of preliminary recommendations from the Invitational Conference on USMLE Scoring (InCUS) and public commentary on these recommendations, the National Board of Medical Examiners and Federation of State Medical Boards announced that the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 would transition from a 3-digit numeric score to pass/fail scoring. Given that another of InCUS's recommendations was to "minimize racial demographic differences that exist in USMLE performance," it is paramount to consider the impact of this scoring change on URM medical students specifically. Holistic admissions are a step in the right direction of acknowledging that URM students often travel a further distance to reach medical school. However, when residency programs emphasize USMLE performance (or any standardized test score) despite persistent test score gaps, medical education contributes to the disproportionate harm URM students face and bolsters segregation across medical specialties. This Perspective provides a brief explanation of the achievement gap, its psychological consequences, and its consequences in medical education; discusses the potential effect of the Step 1 scoring change on URM medical students; and provides a review of strategies to redress this disparity.

Medical Education's Wicked Problem: Achieving Equity in Assessment for Medical Learners.

Despite a lack of intent to discriminate, physicians educated in U.S. medical schools and residency programs often take actions that systematically disadvantage minority patients. The approach to assessment of learner performance in medical education can similarly disadvantage minority learners. The adoption of holistic admissions strategies to increase the diversity of medical training programs has not been accompanied by increases in diversity in honor societies, selective residency programs, medical specialties, and medical school faculty. These observations prompt justified concerns about structural and interpersonal bias in assessment. This manuscript characterizes equity in assessment as a "wicked problem" with inherent conflicts, uncertainty, dynamic tensions, and susceptibility to contextual influences. The authors review the underlying individual and structural causes of inequity in assessment. Using an organizational model, they propose strategies to achieve equity in assessment and drive institutional and systemic improvement based on clearly articulated principles. This model addresses the culture, systems, and assessment tools necessary to achieve equitable results that reflect stated principles. Three components of equity in assessment that can be measured and evaluated to confirm success include intrinsic equity (selection and design of assessment tools), contextual equity (the learning environment in which assessment occurs), and instrumental equity (uses of assessment data for learner advancement and selection and program evaluation). A research agenda to address these challenges and controversies and demonstrate reduction in bias and discrimination in medical education is presented.

Looking toward 2030: Strengthening midwifery education through regional partnerships.

AIMS: The purpose of this paper is to describe the impact of a regional capacity-building project between Thailand and Laos that supports the United Nation's sustainable development goal 3 through midwifery education. DESIGN: Discussion paper based on an exemplar. DATA SOURCES: The International Confederation of Midwifery's standards of midwifery education and World Health Organization midwifery educator core competencies provided the framework for capacity-building of Lao midwifery educators. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: Knowledge gained from this 2-year project (October 2015-November 2017) increased the teaching confidence of midwifery educators while linking international standards and competencies to curriculum revision. In addition, capacity-building projects based on a needs assessment and implementation from regional partners may result in policy changes at the local and national level. CONCLUSION: Partnerships are essential to meeting the sustainable development goals. These regional partnerships may be highly effective in creating sustainable capacity-building projects. IMPACT: Maternal mortality and preventing deaths of children under 5 years old continues to be a challenge across the globe despite progress made in recent years. Progress toward sustainable development goal 3, requires efforts addressed in sustainable development goal17, partnership. Laos has one of the highest maternal mortality rates in Southeast Asia. A project to increase capacity of midwifery educators demonstrated the benefit of regional partnerships in Laos to have an impact on sustainable development goal 3 ultimately improving maternal outcomes throughout the country. Partnerships especially those between countries in the same region, are crucial to the success of meeting the sustainable development goals.

Toward a National Conversation on Health: Disruptive Intervention and the Transformation from Health Care to Health.

Over a century ago, Abraham Flexner's landmark report on medical education resulted in the most extensive reforms of medical training in history. They led to major advances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and the relief of suffering. His prediction that "the physician's function is fast becoming social and preventive, rather than individual and curative," however, was never realized.Instead, with the rise of biomedical science, the scientific method and the American Medical Association, the health care system became increasingly distanced from a holistic approach to life that recognizes the critical role social determinants play in people's health. These developments created the beginning of the regulatory controls that have come to define and shape American health care - and our unhealthy obsession with illness, disease and curative medicine that has resulted in a system that has little to do with health.To realize Flexner's prediction, and to transform health care into a holistic system whose primary goals are focused on health outcomes, six disruptive interventions are proposed. First, health needs to be placed in the context of community. Second, the model of primary care needs to be revised. Third, big data need to be harnessed to provide personalized, consumable, and actionable health knowledge. Fourth, there needs to greater patient engagement, but with fewer face-to-face encounters.Fifth, we need revitalized, collaborative medical training for physicians. And finally, true transformation will require market-driven, not regulatory-constrained, innovation. The evolution from health care to health demands consumer-driven choices that only a deregulated, free market can provide.

China's private institutions for the education of health professionals: a time-series analysis from 1998 to 2012.

BACKGROUND: Public institutions have been the major provider of education for health professionals in China for most of the twentieth century. In the 1990s, the Chinese government began to encourage the establishment of private education institutions, which have been steadily increasing in numbers over the past decade. However, there is a lack of authoritative data on these institutions and little has been published in international journals on the current status of private education of health professionals in China. In light of this knowledge gap, we performed a quantitative analysis of private institutions in China that offer higher education of health professionals. METHODS: Using previously unreleased national data provided by the Ministry of Education of China, we conducted time-series and descriptive analyses to study the scale, structure and educational resources from 1998 to 2012 of private institutions for health professional education. RESULTS: The number of private institutions that educate health professionals increased from two in 1999 to 123 in 2012. Private institutions displayed an average annual growth rate of 44.2% for enrolment, 59.0% for the number of students and 53.3% for the number of graduates. In 2012, nursing, clinical medicine and traditional Chinese medicine had the most students (37.2%, 32.8% and 8.9% respectively), representing 78.9% of all students in these institutions. Ninety-seven private institutions located in the more economically advantaged eastern and central China and only 26 ones were in the less economically advantaged western China, respectively turning out 85.2% and 14.8% of health professional graduates. There were less educational resources, such as the number of faculty members, physical space and assets, at private institutions than at public institutions. CONCLUSIONS: Private institutions for the education of health professionals have emerged quickly in China, contributing to the demand for health professionals that exceeds what public institutions are able to offer. At the same time, the imbalance of geographical distribution and poor educational resources of private institutions are of concern. It may be of utmost importance to enhance administration and supervision to better regulate private institutions and their development plans. Future studies may be needed to better examine the effects of private institutions on the production and allocation of health workers.

Perfil e trajetória profissional dos egressos da residência em medicina de família e comunidade do estado de São Paulo / Profile and professional career of graduates from the São Paulo state family and community medicine residency programs

Objetivo: O objetivo do estudo foi caracterizar o perfil e a trajetória profissional dos egressos dos Programas de Residência em Medicina de Família e Comunidade do Estado de São Paulo. Métodos: Estudo descritivo, transversal, de abordagem quantitativa, que caracterizou o perfil dos 129 médicos residentes egressos de 17 Programas de Residência em Medicina de Família e Comunidade (PRMFC) do Estado de São Paulo que finalizaram a residência entre 2000 e 2009. Resultados: Dos 234 residentes, (129) 55,1% responderam ao questionário da pesquisa. A maioria (96,9%) era brasileira, natural do Estado de São Paulo (71,2%); 58,1% eram mulheres; 88,4% referiram ter até 39 anos; 89,1% moravam em grandes centros urbanos, tendendo a se fixar mais no Estado de São Paulo (80,0%), onde realizaram a residência médica. Os médicos atuavam na área de Medicina de Família e Comunidade (74,0%), 49,6% ligados à Estratégia Saúde da Família. A permanência na área foi mais favorável entre aqueles que, ao terminarem a graduação, desejavam ser médicos de família (77,6%) em relação aos que não o desejavam (63,6%). Quase a metade dos egressos informou ter dois ou três postos de trabalho e 99,2% continuaram sua formação acadêmica após o término da residência. Observou-se interesse na docência por 48,1% dos entrevistados, que referiram atuar no ensino de graduação e pós-graduação stricto e lato sensu, como programas de residência médica, enquanto um terço referiu atividades de pesquisa. Conclusão: O entendimento mais aprofundado de quem são e de onde se encontram os profissionais preparados para atuar na Atenção Primária à Saúde pode contribuir para a construção da identidade dos médicos de família e, consequentemente, para o fortalecimento dessa especialidade médica. Os resultados do estudo apontaram uma perspectiva favorável da especialidade Medicina Geral de Família e Comunidade no Estado de São Paulo, que não pode ser generalizada para a realidade de um sistema de saúde tão desigual no País, mesmo considerando as melhorias promovidas pelas recentes medidas de regulação da gestão do SUS. A literatura consultada e comentada possibilita ver a potencialidade no campo da formação dos especialistas, mas a graduação tem uma latência maior para mostrar a efetividade dessas alterações.(AU)

Objective: The aim of this study was to characterize the profile and professional career of graduates from the São Paulo State residency programs in Family and Community Medicine. Methods: A descriptive, crosssectional study with a quantitative approach, which characterized the profile of the 234 graduating medical residents from 17 São Paulo State residency programs in Family and Community Medicine (PRMFC) who completed residency between 2000 and 2009. Results: Of the 234 residents, 55.1% responded to the survey questionnaire, the majority (96.9%) were Brazilian, born in the state of São Paulo (71.2%), 58.1% were women; 88.4% were 39 years of age or younger, 89.1% lived in large urban centers and they tended to settle in the state of São Paulo (80.0%), where the residency was conducted. The doctors worked in the area of Family and Community Medicine (74.0%); 49.6% related to the Family Health Strategy. Staying in the area was favored more by those who, upon graduating, wanted to be family doctors (77.6%) than thos who did not (63.6%). Almost half of the graduates reported having two or three jobs and 99.2% continued their education after the residence. Interest in teaching was observed among 48.1% of the respondents who reported teaching in undergraduate and graduate courses, including medical residency programs, while a third of the respondents reported conducting research activities. Conclusion: A better understanding of the profile and whereabouts of trained primary health care professionals can contribute towards constructing an identity for family doctors, thereby strengthening this medical specialty. The study results indicate a favorable outlook for the Community and Family Medicine speciality in São Paulo, however this cannot be generalized for such an unequal health system in Brazil, even considering the improvements brought about by recent SUS management regulation measures. The literature reviewed and discussed shed light on the potential in the field of specialist training, but for undergraduate training, the effectiveness of these changes takes longer to become apparent.(AU)

Del razonamiento clínico al aprendizaje del proceso diagnóstico en medicina / No disponible

No disponible

Um estudo sobre a amizade como estratégia pedagógica: o significado dado por estudantes de medicina / Un estudio sobre la amistad como estrategia educativa: el significadoatribuido por estudiantes de medicina / A study on friendship as educational strategy: its meaning by medical students

Objective: To diagnose Friendship as a teaching device. Methods: Exploratory and descriptive qualitative study. Main question: What does Friendship mean and a friendly teacher? Results: Psychosomatic Medicine classroom, 2015/2nd Semester; 16 white students of 6th, 7th and 8th semesters of medical school; two at 2nd graduation; 12 female/4 male; mean age 25 years; most have two siblings; from Southeast and one from Midwest; three were married; two had children. Friendship as a feature of human essence, a communication of the sensitive body. They think teacher as someone fulfilling their will. Conclusion: Educational activities in education, training and health actions should include feeling and will of students. The teachers need to acquire teaching skills of human spirituality.

Objetivo: Diagnosticar a Amizade como estratégia didática. Métodos: Estudo qualitativo exploratório e descritivo. Questão norteadora: o que é Amizade e um professor amigo? Resultados: A sala de aula, Medicina Psicossomática, 2015/2º Semestre; 16 alunos brancos, no 6º, 7º e 8º períodos da medicina; 2, segunda graduação; 12 sexo feminino/4 masculino; idade média +/- 25 anos; a maioria, 2 irmãos; provenientes Sudeste e Centro-Oeste; 3 casados; 2 com filhos. A Amizade, característica da essência humana, comunicação dos significados do corpo sensível. Os alunos pensam o professor, realizador do seu querer. Conclusão: As atividades pedagógicas na educação, formação e ação na saúde precisam incluir o sentir e o querer dos discentes. Os docentes necessitam competências da espiritualidade humana.

Objetivo: Diagnosticar Amistad como estrategia de enseñanza. Métodos: Estudio cualitativo exploratorio y descriptivo. Pregunta principal: ¿Qué es la Amistad y un profesor amigo? Resultados: Clase Medicina Psicosomática, 2015, 2º Semestre; 16 estudiantes blancos del 6º, 7º y8º períodos de graduación en medicina; 2 en segunda graduación; 12 sexo femenino/4 sexo masculino; edad promedio 25 años, mayoríacon 2 hermanos, región sudeste y 1 del centro-oeste; 3 casados; 2 conniños. Revelaron la Amistad como característica de esencia humana, comunicación de significados del cuerpo sensible. Ven al profesor comorealizador de su voluntad. Conclusión: Actividades educativas, formacióny acción en salud deben incluir sentimiento y aspiración de estudiantes. Docentes necesitan habilidades de espiritualidad humana.

The Evolution of Psychology as a Basic Bio-behavioral Science in Healthcare Education.

For over a century, researchers and educators have called for the integration of psychological science into medical school curricula, but such efforts have been impeded by barriers within medicine and psychology. In addressing these barriers, Psychology has re-examined its relationship to Medicine, incorporated psychological practices into health care, and redefined its parameters as a science. In response to interdisciplinary research into the mechanisms of bio-behavioral interaction, Psychology evolved from an ancillary social science to a bio-behavioral science that is fundamental to medicine and health care. However, in recent medical school curriculum innovations, psychological science is being reduced to a set of "clinical skills," and once again viewed as an ancillary social science. These developments warrant concern and consideration of new approaches to integrating psychological science in medical education.

Razonamiento clínico / Clinical reasoning

Todas las actuaciones médicas tienen una curva de aprendizaje, pero el razonamiento clínico se mantiene como un elemento clave en cualquiera de ellas. Los médicos experimentados manejan una gran cantidad de información en cualquier proceso clínico. Para conseguir la máxima eficiencia en la utilización de esta información, los clínicos emplean una serie de estrategias que les permiten combinar datos y sintetizarlos en un número reducido de hipótesis diagnósticas, evaluar los riesgos y los beneficios de realizar nuevos procedimientos diagnósticos y aplicar determinados tratamientos, y formular planes en el manejo del paciente. Uno de los objetivos principales de cualquier docente médico es promover el desarrollo de una forma de razonar experta en sus estudiantes. Sin embargo, enseñar estas habilidades cognitivas no es tarea sencilla porque no existe una teoría completa y ampliamente aceptada acerca de los procesos de razonamiento clínico, e incluso los médicos más experimentados a menudo no son conscientes de los métodos de razonamiento que utilizan para alcanzar un diagnóstico. Desde hace más de cuarenta años se ha investigado en este campo. En este artículo se revisan las bases científicas y las teorías propuestas a lo largo de este período acerca del modo de razonar de los clínicos. También se analiza la evolución de las estructuras del conocimiento y se examinan algunos errores frecuentes en razonamiento diagnóstico. Por último, se proponen algunas recomendaciones prácticas específicas para ayudar a los principiantes a fortalecer sus habilidades de razonamiento diagnóstico (AU)

There is a learning curve in almost everything doctors do, but judgment remains a key determinant of the value of any clinical intervention. Expert physicians manage huge amounts of information to ensure the quality of patient care by using a set of efficient reasoning strategies. These strategies allow them to combine and synthesize data into a few diagnostic hypotheses, assess benefits and risks of additional diagnostic procedures and treatments, and articulate plans for patient management. A major goal of the medical educators is to foster the development of expert clinical reasoning in apprentices. However, teaching these cognitive skills is a difficult task because there is no generally accepted inclusive theory of the clinical reasoning process and even the most seasoned clinicians are often unaware of the reasoning methods that lead them to achieve accurate diagnoses. Research in this field has been carried out for over 40 years. In this paper we review the scientific background and theories proposed throughout this time about how clinicians reason. We also analyze the evolution of knowledge structures and examine some common errors in diagnostic reasoning. Finally, we provide several practical and specific recommendations to help learners strengthen their diagnostic reasoning skills (AU)