La teoría del sueño de F. S. Perls: evolución, problemas teóricos y prácticos / F. S. Perls's dream theory: evolution, theoretical and practical problems / A teoria do sonho de F. S. perls: evolução, problemas teóricos e práticos

La teoría del sueño creada por F. S. Perls, tradicionalmente, ha sido caracterizada como una proyección o un mensaje existencial. Sin embargo, esta descripción sólo representa una explicación simplista de la conceptualización más amplia y original del fenómeno onírico desarrollada por Perls. En este sentido, en el presente escrito se hace una exposición ordenada de la teoría perlsiana del sueño, así como un análisis crítico de las proposiciones en las cuales se fundamenta, prestando especial atención a los errores inherentes en ésta y sus implicaciones en la práctica clínica. Se concluye que la teoría perlsiana de lo onírico evolucionó en tres etapas, a saber, modelo original del sueño, modelo de correspondencia y modelo clásico del sueño, cada uno de los cuales constituye, por derecho propio, una teoría del sueño en la cual se define el fenómeno onírico de una manera particular y se le atribuyen funciones psicológicas y terapéuticas concretas, al igual que una metodología de trabajo específica.

The dream theory created by F. S. Perls, traditionally, has been characterized as a projection or an existential message. However, this description only represents a simplistic explanation of the broader and original conceptualization of the dream phenomenon developed by Perls. In this regard, in this paper an orderly exposition of the perlsian theory of the dream is done, as well as a critical analysis of the propositions on which it is based, paying special attention to the errors inherent in it and its implications in clinical practice. It is concluded that the perlsian theory of the oneiric evolved in three stages, namely, original model of the dream, model of correspondence and classical model of the dream, each of which constitutes, in its own right, a theory of the dream in which it defines the dream phenomenon in a particular way and is attributed to specific psychological and therapeutic functions, as well as a specific work methodology.

A teoria sobre sonhos criada por F. S. Perls tem sido tradicionalmente caracterizada como uma projeção ou uma mensagem existencial. No entanto, esta descrição representa apenas uma explicação simplista da conceituação mais ampla e original do fenômeno onírico desenvolvida por Perls. Este artigo apresenta uma exposição ordenada da teoria perlsiana do sonho e uma análise crítica de seus pressupostos, com especial atenção para os erros inerentes a ela e suas implicações na prática clínica. Conclui-se que a teoria perlsiana dos sonhos evoluiu em três fases a saber, a) modelo original do sonho, b) modelo de correspondência, e c) modelo clássico de sono. Cada um desses modelos constitui-se de forma própria como uma teoria específica sobre sonhos na qual define o fenômeno onírico de uma maneira particular e lhe são atribuídos funções psicológicas e terapêuticas concretas, bem como uma metodologia de trabalho específica.

Cueing color imagery: A critical analysis of imagery-perception congruency effects.

The relation between mental imagery and visual perception is a long debated topic in experimental psychology. In a recent study, Wantz, Borst, Mast, and Lobmaier (2015) demonstrated that color imagery could benefit color perception in a task that involved generating imagery in response to a cue prior to a forced-choice color discrimination task. Here, we scrutinized whether the method of Wantz et al. warrants strong inferences about the role of color imagery in color perception. In Experiments 1-3, we demonstrate that the imagery effect reported by Wantz et al. does replicate nicely using their method but does not occur when cue-target contingencies and a redundancy between the imagery and response dimensions are removed from their method. In Experiments 4-6, we explored cued imagery effects further using a method in which the cued imagery dimension was orthogonal to the response dimension. The results of these experiments demonstrate that a compelling endogenously cued imagery effect does not occur for lone targets but does occur for singleton color targets embedded amid homogenous color distractors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Specifying the boundary conditions of the multimedia effect: The influence of content and its distribution between text and pictures.

It was investigated whether the beneficial effect of picture presentation might be influenced by the content conveyed through text and pictures and the way information is distributed between them. Ninety-nine students learnt in five between-subjects learning conditions (i.e., text with spatial contents plus pictures, text with visual contents plus pictures, only text with spatial contents, only text with visual contents, only picture) about a tourist centre and a holiday farm. Results showed that pictures (i.e., maps) were beneficial for learning if spatial knowledge had to be acquired, but did not support learning when non-spatial, visual knowledge had to be acquired. Furthermore, a high overlap of spatial information in text and picture was helpful, which can be explained by the assumption that learning is a text-guided process. On the other hand, regarding non-spatial visual information, a high text-picture overlap did not influence learning, probably because text alone was sufficient for acquiring visual knowledge. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Método de análise imagética: Cazuza na revista Veja como ícone da Aids na década de 1980 no Brasil / Imagetic analysis method: Cazuza as an iconic image for Aids in the 1980's in Brazil

Este estudo teve por objetivo demonstrar o uso da análise semiótica em fac-símile como documento de pesquisa e resgate da memória social na temática do HIV/Aids. Utilizou-se uma matriz de análise imagética com quatro itens sobre a capa da revista Veja, de 26 de abril de 1989, com a manchete ­ "Cazuza - uma vítima da Aids agoniza em praça pública". Os resultados foram contextualizados à imagem símbolo de uma pandemia, por meio de elementos públicos midiáticos correspondentes à década de 1980 no Brasil. As discussões se relacionaram com a atitude pela qual o artista retratado expressa sua posição na mídia frente a síndrome. A reportagem de capa da Veja 1.077, prestes a completar 26 anos, ainda consta no ranking das matérias mais comentadas da história da revista, podendo servir como instrumento para estudos de memória social. Conclui-se que a análise da matriz é ratificada como ferramenta de pesquisa de memória social e documental imagética, podendo ser utilizada em estudos de representação social. (AU)

The present study aims to demonstrate the use of semiotic analysis as a research tool in the field of HIV/aids and to draw attention to HIV/Aids in social memory. We used an image analysis matrix with four items on the cover of Veja magazine from the April 26, 1989 that had the following headline: "Cazuza - an AIDS victim agonizes in public". Results were contextualized as a pandemic through midia public elements corresponding to the 1980's in Brazil. The discussion is related to the way the artist expresses his position on the syndrome in the media. The cover story from issue 1,077 of Veja, about to be 26-years-old, still ranks as one of the most talked about in the history of the magazine, which renders it appropriate as a toll in social memory studies. In conclusion, the matrix analyses is confirmed as a tool in social memory and imagetic documental research, and can be used in social representation studies. (AU)

Linking perceptual learning with identical stimuli to imagery perceptual learning.

Perceptual learning is usually thought to be exclusively driven by the stimuli presented during training (and the underlying synaptic learning rules). In some way, we are slaves of our visual experiences. However, learning can occur even when no stimuli are presented at all. For example, Gabor contrast detection improves when only a blank screen is presented and observers are asked to imagine Gabor patches. Likewise, performance improves when observers are asked to imagine the nonexisting central line of a bisection stimulus to be offset either to the right or left. Hence, performance can improve without stimulus presentation. As shown in the auditory domain, performance can also improve when the very same stimulus is presented in all learning trials and observers were asked to discriminate differences which do not exist (observers were not told about the set up). Classic models of perceptual learning cannot handle these situations since they need proper stimulus presentation, i.e., variance in the stimuli, such as a left versus right offset in the bisection stimulus. Here, we show that perceptual learning with identical stimuli occurs in the visual domain, too. Second, we linked the two paradigms by telling observers that only the very same bisection stimulus was presented in all trials and asked them to imagine the central line to be offset either to the left or right. As in imagery learning, performance improved.

Evaluación y modulación de la memoria emocional: un estudio preliminar / Evaluation and modulation of emotional memory: a preliminary study

El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la memoria de imágenes con diferente contenido emocional, y analizar si la realización de una tarea, con distintos niveles de complejidad, modulaba el recuerdo posterior de los participantes. Para ello 64 estudiantes observaron 24 imágenes emocionales y 24 neutras. Inmediatamente después, realizaban una tarea, que consistía en la resolución de operaciones matemáticas con distinto grado de dificultad. Una semana más tarde se evaluó a los participantes en una prueba de recuerdo libre. Como resultado se observó que las imágenes con contenido emocional se recordaron significativamente más que las neutras. La realización de la tarea no afectó la consolidación de la información acerca de las imágenes. Sin embargo, al igual que en la literatura, se encontró que el contenido emocional de las fotografías actuó como un neuromodulador facilitando la memoria de las imágenes emocionales, en comparación con las neutras.

Evaluación y modulación de la memoria emocional: un estudio preliminar / Evaluation and modulation of emotional memory: a preliminary study

El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la memoria de imágenes con diferente contenido emocional, y analizar si la realización de una tarea, con distintos niveles de complejidad, modulaba el recuerdo posterior de los participantes. Para ello 64 estudiantes observaron 24 imágenes emocionales y 24 neutras. Inmediatamente después, realizaban una tarea, que consistía en la resolución de operaciones matemáticas con distinto grado de dificultad. Una semana más tarde se evaluó a los participantes en una prueba de recuerdo libre. Como resultado se observó que las imágenes con contenido emocional se recordaron significativamente más que las neutras. La realización de la tarea no afectó la consolidación de la información acerca de las imágenes. Sin embargo, al igual que en la literatura, se encontró que el contenido emocional de las fotografías actuó como un neuromodulador facilitando la memoria de las imágenes emocionales, en comparación con las neutras.(AU)

Effects of exposure to food images on physiological reactivity and emotional responses in women with bulimia nervosa / Efecto de la exposición a imágenes de comida sobre la reactividad psicofisiológica y las reacciones emocionales en mujeres con bulimia nerviosa

Background: The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of two exposure procedures on habituation of emotional responses to food stimuli: (a) exposure to external cues (food images) without eating forbidden food (CE) and (b) exposure to external cues eating forbidden food (with purge prevention). The influence of craving-trait and mood state on the habituation process is also studied. Method: Emotional modulation of the defense startle reflex was assessed in 26 women at risk of bulimia nervosa. After four exposure trials, changes in the following variables were measured: (a) food craving-state; (b) physiological measures: hearth rate (HR) and skin conductance response (SCR); (c) motivational patterns towards food (defense startle response); and (d) valence, arousal and dominance of the emotional response to food images. Results: After treatment, subjects tended to show non-significant lower SCR and heart orientation responses (vs. defense responses); defense startle response was also significantly lower. Conclusions: The exposure procedure, the induced emotional state and the number of exposure trials are analyzed (AU)

Antecedentes: en este estudio comparamos la eficacia de dos procedimientos de exposición sobre la habituación de reacciones emocionales a alimentos: a) claves externas (imágenes de comida) sin ingerir alimentos prohibidos, y b) claves externas en personas que sí los han ingerido (impidiendo que se produzca el vómito). Además consideramos la influencia de la intensidad del craving rasgo y del estado de ánimo. Evaluamos la modulación emocional del reflejo defensivo de sobresalto motor (RMS) en 26 mujeres con riesgo de padecer bulimia nerviosa. Método: tras cuatro bloques de exposición, se midieron los cambios en: a) craving estado por la comida; b) tasa cardíaca (TC) y respuesta electrodérmica de conductancia (SCR); c) patrones motivacionales ante la comida (RMS); y d) estimaciones afectivas de valencia, arousal y dominancia de las emociones producidas por las imágenes de los alimentos. Resultados: como consecuencia del tratamiento los sujetos tendían a mostrar de forma estadísticamente no significativa menores SCRs y una tendencia de cambio de patrón de respuesta de defensa cardíaca (RD) a respuesta de orientación (RO); sí se apreciaban diferencias significativas en RMS. Conclusiones: se comenta el papel desempeñado por el tipo de exposición utilizado, los estados emocionales inducidos y el número de ensayos de exposición (AU)

Remembering President Barack Obama's inauguration and the landing of US Airways Flight 1549: a comparison of the predictors of autobiographical and event memory.

We examined and compared the predictors of autobiographical memory (AM) consistency and event memory accuracy across two publicly documented yet disparate public events: the inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th president of the United States on January 20th 2009, and the emergency landing of US Airways Flight 1549, off the coast of Manhattan, on January 15th 2009. We tracked autobiographical and event memories for both events, with assessments taking place within 2½ weeks of both events (Survey 1), and again between 3½ and 4 months after both events (Survey 2). In a series of stepwise regressions we found that the psychological variables of recalled emotional intensity and personal importance/centrality predicted AM consistency and event memory accuracy for the inauguration. Conversely, the rehearsal variables of covert rehearsal and media attention predicted, respectively, AM consistency and event memory accuracy for the plane landing. We conclude from these findings that different factors may underlie autobiographical and event memory for personally and culturally significant events (e.g., the inauguration), relative to noteworthy, yet less culturally significant, events (e.g., the plane landing).

Reconocimiento falso y ansiedad estado/rasgo / False recognition and state/trait anxiety

En este estudio se analiza la relación entre la ansiedad estado/rasgo (STAI, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) y el reconocimiento falso empleando el paradigma Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM). En este paradigma, los participantes estudian palabras altamente asociadas a una palabra crítica no presentada; posteriormente, en el test de reconocimiento la palabra crítica se reconoce falsamente. Se presentaron 10 listas de palabras a 161 participantes para estudiar las ilusiones asociativas de memoria. Los resultados mostraron que no existía correlación entre la ansiedad, ni en su modalidad estado ni en su modalidad rasgo, y el reconocimiento falso. Solamente encontramos la esperada correlación positiva entre ansiedad estado y ansiedad rasgo. Posteriormente, los datos obtenidos se analizaron teniendo en cuenta las puntuaciones extremas en ansiedad según el STAI. Así, se comparó el reconocimiento falso de los individuos con alta y baja ansiedad estado, por un lado, y con alta y baja ansiedad rasgo, por otro. De nuevo, los análisis indicaron que no existían diferencia en el nivel de reconocimiento falso ni entre los grupos de alta/baja ansiedad estado ni entre los grupos de alta/baja ansiedad rasgo. En conclusión, estos resultados sugieren que los individuos con alta ansiedad no son más susceptibles a producir ilusiones asociativas de memoria que los individuos con baja ansiedad(AU)

The present study analyzed the relationship between state/trait anxiety and false recognition using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, participants study words that are highly associated with a non-presented critical lure; subsequently, when a memory test is administered, the critical lure is consistently recognized falsely. Ten 10-word DRM lists were presented to 161 participants to study associative memory illusions. The results showed no correlation between anxiety (either state or trait assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; STAI) and false recognition. Only the expected positive correlation between state anxiety and trait anxiety was found. Thereafter, the results were analyzed according to extreme scores on the STAI. So, high state anxiety individuals were compared with low state anxiety individuals in false recognition, and the same was done with individuals with high versus low trait anxiety. Again, these detailed analyses revealed no differences on the level of false recognition, neither between high/low state anxiety nor between high/low trait anxiety. In conclusion, these findings suggest that individuals with high state anxiety and individuals with high trait anxiety were no more prone to produce associative illusions of memory than individuals with low state and trait anxiet(AU)

Shifting attention within memory representations involves early visual areas.

Prior studies have shown that spatial attention modulates early visual cortex retinotopically, resulting in enhanced processing of external perceptual representations. However, it is not clear whether the same visual areas are modulated when attention is focused on, and shifted within a working memory representation. In the current fMRI study participants were asked to memorize an array containing four stimuli. After a delay, participants were presented with a verbal cue instructing them to actively maintain the location of one of the stimuli in working memory. Additionally, on a number of trials a second verbal cue instructed participants to switch attention to the location of another stimulus within the memorized representation. Results of the study showed that changes in the BOLD pattern closely followed the locus of attention within the working memory representation. A decrease in BOLD-activity (V1-V3) was observed at ROIs coding a memory location when participants switched away from this location, whereas an increase was observed when participants switched towards this location. Continuous increased activity was obtained at the memorized location when participants did not switch. This study shows that shifting attention within memory representations activates the earliest parts of visual cortex (including V1) in a retinotopic fashion. We conclude that even in the absence of visual stimulation, early visual areas support shifting of attention within memorized representations, similar to when attention is shifted in the outside world. The relationship between visual working memory and visual mental imagery is discussed in light of the current findings.

Condicionamiento clásico electrodérmico aversivo y apetitivo utilizando imágenes como estímulos / Aversive and appetitive electrodermal classical conditioning using pictures as stimuli

El principal objetivo de este estudio consistió en comprobar si era posible obtener condicionamiento clásico electrodérmico, tanto aversivo como apetitivo, utilizando imágenes como estímulos condicionados (ECs) y estímulos incondicionados (EIs). Además, se pretendía averiguar si, como consecuencia de dicho condicionamiento, se observaba el fenómeno de disminución de la respuesta incondicionada (RI). Para ello se seleccionaron como estímulos imágenes del IAPS («International Affective Picture System»). Como EI aversivo (EIav) se empleó una fotografía que mostraba un rostro quemado y como EI apetitivo (EIap) una escena de contenido erótico. Tanto el EC aversivo (ECav) como el EC apetitivo (ECap) consistieron en fotografías con valores intermedios de valencia y arousal que mostraban rostros de varones. En el grupo experimental se presentaron 10 ensayos ECav/EIav y otros 10 ensayos ECap/EIap. En el grupo de control cada estímulo (ECav, ECap, EIav y EIap) se presentó en 10 ocasiones en orden pseudoaleatorio. Se registró la respuesta de conductancia electrodérmica (Skin Conductance Response, SCR) elicitada por los ECs y EIs. Los resultados mostraron que se había obtenido condicionamiento aversivo, aunque no apetitivo ni disminución de la RI. Se discuten las dificultades para obtener condicionamiento utilizando imágenes como estímulos y las posibles alternativas para superarlas en futuras investigaciones (AU)

The principal goal of this study was to verify whether it was possible to obtain both aversive and appetitive electrodermal classical conditioning, using pictures as conditioned stimuli (CS), and unconditioned stimuli (US). Additionally, we tried to verify whether, as a consequence of such conditioning, diminution of the unconditioned response (UR) was observed. With this aim, IAPS («International Affective Picture System») pictures were selected as stimuli. A picture showing a burnt face was used as the aversive US (USav), and a picture showing a scene with erotic content was used as the appetitive US (USap). As the aversive CS (CSav), and appetitive CS (CSap), two images with intermediate values of valence and arousal showing male faces were selected. In the experimental group, 10 CSav/USav and 10 CSap/ USap trials were presented. In the control group 10 CSav, CSap, USav, and USap trials were presented in pseudorandom order. Skin conductance response (SCR) elicited by both the CSs and the USs was scored. Results showed aversive conditioning, but neither appetitive conditioning nor UR diminution. Problems to obtain conditioning using pictures as stimuli and possible options to overcome them in future research are discussed (AU)

Do young chimpanzees have extraordinary working memory?

Do chimpanzees have better spatial working memory than humans? In a previous report, a juvenile chimpanzee outperformed 3 university students on memory for briefly displayed digits in a spatial array (Inoue & Matsuzawa, 2007). The authors described these abilities as extraordinary and likened the chimpanzee's performance to eidetic memory. However, the chimpanzee received extensive practice on a non-time-pressured version of the task; the human subjects received none. Here we report that, after adequate practice, 2 university students substantially outperformed the chimpanzee. There is no evidence for a superior or qualitatively different spatial memory system in chimpanzees.

Time gaps in mental imagery introduced by competing saccadic tasks.

Recently it has been suggested that, somehow similarly to visual saccadic suppression, saccades interrupt some mental activities. After demonstrating that spontaneous eye movements can be used to trace the instantaneous evolution of mental imagery, we show here that making a voluntary saccade or anti-saccade as a secondary task introduces a large delay in a concurrent motion imagery task. An identical task requiring a shift of attention but not saccades also delays imagery, though to a lesser extent. The delay is never compensated afterwards, as if the time dedicated to the secondary task was lost. In contrast, motion imagery is not delayed by spontaneous saccades that accompany imagery, as compared to a fixation condition. We conclude that important time gaps in cognitive activity are introduced only by tasks competing for attentional resources, including voluntary saccades, in dual-task contexts.

Why do people show minimal knowledge updating with task experience: inferential deficit or experimental artifact?

Students generally do not have highly accurate knowledge about strategy effectiveness for learning, such as that imagery is superior to rote repetition. During multiple study-test trials using both strategies, participants' predictions about performance on List 2 do not markedly differ for the two strategies, even though List 1 recall is substantially greater for imagery. Two experiments evaluated whether such deficits in knowledge updating about the strategy effects were due to an experimental artifact or to inaccurate inferences about the effects the strategies had on recall. Participants studied paired associates on two study-test trials--they were instructed to study half using imagery and half using rote repetition. Metacognitive judgements tapped the quality of inferential processes about the strategy effects during the List 1 test and tapped gains in knowledge about the strategies across lists. One artifactual explanation--noncompliance with strategy instructions--was ruled out, whereas manipulations aimed at supporting the data available to inferential processes improved but did not fully repair knowledge updating.

Facilitating participatory multilevel decision-making by using interactive mental maps.

Participation of citizens in political, economic or social decisions is increasingly recognized as a precondition to foster sustainable development processes. Since spatial information is often important during planning and decision making, participatory mapping gains in popularity. However, little attention has been paid to the fact that information must be presented in a useful way to reach city planners and policy makers. Above all, the importance of visualisation tools to support collaboration, analytical reasoning, problem solving and decision-making in analysing and planning processes has been underestimated. In this paper, we describe how an interactive mental map tool has been developed in a highly interdisciplinary disaster management project in Chennai, India. We moved from a hand drawn mental maps approach to an interactive mental map tool. This was achieved by merging socio-economic and geospatial data on infrastructure, local perceptions, coping and adaptation strategies with remote sensing data and modern technology of map making. This newly developed interactive mapping tool allowed for insights into different locally-constructed realities and facilitated the communication of results to the wider public and respective policy makers. It proved to be useful in visualising information and promoting participatory decision-making processes. We argue that the tool bears potential also for health research projects. The interactive mental map can be used to spatially and temporally assess key health themes such as availability of, and accessibility to, existing health care services, breeding sites of disease vectors, collection and storage of water, waste disposal, location of public toilets or defecation sites.

Awareness of memory functioning, autobiographical memory and identity in early-stage dementia.

Sense of identity is thought to be closely related to autobiographical memory. Theoretical models of awareness suggest that both may also be related to level of awareness of memory functioning among people with early-stage dementia. This study explores the relationships between autobiographical memory, identity and awareness in early-stage dementia. Thirty participants with Alzheimer's disease, or vascular or mixed dementia were assessed using the Autobiographical Memory Interview, with an additional section eliciting recall for the mid-life period, the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, and the Memory Awareness Rating Scale. Lower levels of awareness of memory functioning were associated with poorer autobiographical recall for the mid-life period and with a more positive and definite sense of identity. Reduced awareness may serve a protective function against the threats to self posed by the onset and progression of dementia.

Age-related differences in strategy knowledge updating: blocked testing produces greater improvements in metacognitive accuracy for younger than older adults.

Age-related differences in updating knowledge about strategy effectiveness after task experience have not been consistently found, perhaps because the magnitude of observed knowledge updating has been rather meager for both age groups. We examined whether creating homogeneous blocks of recall tests based on two strategies used at encoding (imagery and repetition) would enhance people's learning about strategy effects on recall. Younger and older adults demonstrated greater knowledge updating (as measured by questionnaire ratings of strategy effectiveness and by global judgments of performance) with blocked (versus random) testing. The benefit of blocked testing for absolute accuracy of global predictions was smaller for older than younger adults. However, individual differences in correlations of strategy effectiveness ratings and postdictions showed similar upgrades for both age groups. Older adults learn about imagery's superior effectiveness but do not accurately estimate the magnitude of its benefit, even after blocked testing.