Stress fractures.

Stress fractures (SF) represent 10%-20% of all injuries in sport medicine. An SF occurs when abnormal and repetitive loading is applied on normal bone: The body cannot adapt quickly enough, leading to microdamage and fracture. The etiology is multifactorial with numerous risk factors involved. Diagnosis of SF can be achieved by identifying intrinsic and extrinsic factors, obtaining a good history, performing a physical exam, and ordering laboratory and imaging studies (magnetic resonance imaging is the current gold standard). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a known risk factor. In addition, for women, it is very important know the menstrual status to identify long periods of amenorrhea in the past and the present. Early detection is important to improve the chance of symptom resolution with conservative treatment. Common presentation involves complaints of localized pain, with or without swelling, and tenderness on palpation of bony structures that begins earlier in training and progressively worsens with activity over a 2- to 3-week period. Appropriate classification of SF based on type, location, grading, and low or high risk is critical in guiding treatment strategies and influencing the time to return to sport. Stress injuries at low-risk sites are typically managed conservatively. Studies have suggested that calcium and vitamin D supplementation might be helpful. Moreover, other treatment regimens are not well established. Understanding better the pathophysiology of SFs and the potential utility of current and future bone-active therapeutics may well yield approaches that could treat SFs more effectively.

Risk factors for subchondral insufficiency fracture of the femoral head in renal transplant patients.

INTRODUCTION: Risk factors associated with subchondral insufficiency fracture (SIF) of the femoral head have not been established. The aim of the present study was to determine the incidence and risk factors for SIF of the femoral head following renal transplantation (RT). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed the cases of 681 RT patients (mean age at surgery: 49.5 ± 13.6 years, 249 women, 432 men) to determine the incidence of SIF. Hip magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed 6 months post-RT. The following potential predictors of SIF were evaluated: (1) patient's condition at RT: bone mineral density (BMD), pre-RT laboratory values including calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), calcium-phosphorus product (Ca × P), and intact parathyroid hormone; the patient and donor's blood relationship; and mismatching number of human leukocyte antigens (HLAs), and (2) post-RT dosage(s) of steroid(s), the immunosuppressive regimen, and the incidence of acute rejection. RESULTS: SIF was observed in 15 hips (13 patients, 1.9%). We successfully matched 39 patients without SIF. A multivariate logistic regression analysis adjusted for cumulative dosages of steroids, revealed the following were risk factors for SIF: osteoporosis (OR: 11.4, p = 0.046), lumbar BMD (OR: 0.003, p = 0.038), pre-RT serum P (OR 2.68, p = 0.004), and pre-RT serum Ca × P (OR: 1.11, p = 0.005). CONCLUSION: Since osteoporosis, the lumbar BMD, serum P, and serum Ca × P were identified as risk factors for a post-RT SIF, these factors should be evaluated before RT for the prediction of the SIF risk.

Vitamin D and Stress Fractures in Sport: Preventive and Therapeutic Measures-A Narrative Review.

There are numerous risk factors for stress fractures that have been identified in literature. Among different risk factors, a prolonged lack of vitamin D (25(OH)D) can lead to stress fractures in athletes since 25(OH)D insufficiency is associated with an increased incidence of a fracture. A 25(OH)D value of <75.8 nmol/L is a risk factor for a stress fracture. 25(OH)D deficiency is, however, only one of several potential risk factors. Well-documented risk factors for a stress fracture include female sex, white ethnicity, older age, taller stature, lower aerobic fitness, prior physical inactivity, greater amounts of current physical training, thinner bones, 25(OH)D deficiency, iron deficiency, menstrual disturbances, and inadequate intake of 25(OH)D and/or calcium. Stress fractures are not uncommon in athletes and affect around 20% of all competitors. Most athletes with a stress fracture are under 25 years of age. Stress fractures can affect every sporty person, from weekend athletes to top athletes. Stress fractures are common in certain sports disciplines such as basketball, baseball, athletics, rowing, soccer, aerobics, and classical ballet. The lower extremity is increasingly affected for stress fractures with the locations of the tibia, metatarsalia and pelvis. Regarding prevention and therapy, 25(OH)D seems to play an important role. Athletes should have an evaluation of 25(OH)D -dependent calcium homeostasis based on laboratory tests of 25-OH-D3, calcium, creatinine, and parathyroid hormone. In case of a deficiency of 25(OH)D, normal blood levels of ≥30 ng/mL may be restored by optimizing the athlete's lifestyle and, if appropriate, an oral substitution of 25(OH)D. Very recent studies suggested that the prevalence of stress fractures decreased when athletes are supplemented daily with 800 IU 25(OH)D and 2000 mg calcium. Recommendations of daily 25(OH)D intake may go up to 2000 IU of 25(OH)D per day.

Adolescent Athlete Stress Fractures Associated with Vitamin D Insufficiency: Three Cases with Review of the Literature.

CASE: The authors present 3 adolescent athletes who presented with stress fractures in their lower extremities, initially diagnosed as tumors. All 3 patients received an inconclusive magnetic resonance imaging before referral; fractures were confirmed on radiographs and computed tomography. All were found to have vitamin D insufficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D insufficiency is a global epidemic mainly focused on adults and young-adult athletes. These case reports raise concerns about a growing prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in adolescents, the potential risk of stress fracture, and the need for screening and possible supplementation in adolescent athletes to improve their bone health.

Ulnar stress reaction in an axillary crutch user.

Ulnar stress fractures have been reported in athletes performing repetitive, high-impact activities, such as baseball pitchers and gymnasts. Crutch-assisted walking also results in cyclical forearm loading. We report the first case of ulnar stress reaction due to axillary crutch use. A 23-year-old right-handed woman experienced right forearm pain and imaging confirmed a right ulnar stress injury. The patient was also found to have mild hypercortisolism, low bone mass and vitamin D deficiency. Crutches were discontinued and physical therapy to normalise weight bearing through the left leg was prescribed. The patient's right forearm symptoms resolved and she was started on oral vitamin D supplementation. Axillary crutch use may result in ulnar stress injury, particularly in vulnerable populations. The addition of an upper extremity injury to someone with impaired mobility may compound disability. As such, clinicians should be aware of the clinical presentation of ulnar stress fractures in the long-term axillary crutch user.

Effectiveness of intramuscular ergocalciferol treatment in a patient with osteomalacia and insufficiency fractures due to severe vitamin D deficiency after bariatric surgery.

Vitamin D (vitD) deficiency and bone loss may occur after bariatric surgery and hence, supplementation with high oral doses of vitD may be required. Alternatively, intramuscular depot ergocalciferol, which slowly releases vitD and bypasses the gastrointestinal tract, could be administrated. We present a case of severe vitD deficiency-osteomalacia after gastric bypass operation for morbid obesity, treated with ergocalciferol intramuscularly. A 45-year-old woman was presented with hip pain and muscle weakness, which led ultimately to immobilization in a wheelchair. Fifteen years ago, she underwent roux-en-Y gastric by-pass for morbid obesity. Occasionally, she was treated with multivitamin supplements. On admission, iron deficiency anaemia, vitD deficiency (25OHD: 3.7 ng/ml) and secondary hyperparathyroidism were revealed. Bone turnover markers (BTM) were elevated. Radiological evaluation demonstrated insufficiency fractures on the pubic and left femur and reduced BMD. Osteomalacia due to vitD deficiency and calcium malabsorption were diagnosed. Calcium citrate 500 mg qid and intramuscular ergocalciferol 600,000 IU every 20 days were initiated. One month later, musculoskeletal pain and weakness were resolved and the patient was mobilized. Few months later, vitD, BTM and BMD showed substantial improvement. Intramuscular ergocalciferol administration can improve the clinical and biochemical status and thus, is suggested to prevent and/or treat osteomalacia in such patients.

Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status in the pathogenesis of stress fractures in military personnel: An evidenced link to support injury risk management.

Stress fractures are common amongst healthy military recruits and athletes. Reduced vitamin D availability, measured by serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) status, has been associated with stress fracture risk during the 32-week Royal Marines (RM) training programme. A gene-environment interaction study was undertaken to explore this relationship to inform specific injury risk mitigation strategies. Fifty-one males who developed a stress fracture during RM training (n = 9 in weeks 1-15; n = 42 in weeks 16-32) and 141 uninjured controls were genotyped for the vitamin D receptor (VDR) FokI polymorphism. Serum 25OHD was measured at the start, middle and end (weeks 1, 15 and 32) of training. Serum 25OHD concentration increased in controls between weeks 1-15 (61.8±29.1 to 72.6±28.8 nmol/L, p = 0.01). Recruits who fractured did not show this rise and had lower week-15 25OHD concentration (p = 0.01). Higher week-15 25OHD concentration was associated with reduced stress fracture risk (adjusted OR 0.55[0.32-0.96] per 1SD increase, p = 0.04): the greater the increase in 25OHD, the greater the protective effect (p = 0.01). The f-allele was over-represented in fracture cases compared with controls (p<0.05). Baseline 25OHD status interacted with VDR genotype: a higher level was associated with reduced fracture risk in f-allele carriers (adjusted OR 0.39[0.17-0.91], p = 0.01). Improved 25OHD status between weeks 1-15 had a greater protective effect in FF genotype individuals (adjusted OR 0.31[0.12-0.81] vs. 1.78[0.90-3.49], p<0.01). Stress fracture risk in RM recruits is impacted by the interaction of VDR genotype with vitamin D status. This further supports the role of low serum vitamin D concentrations in causing stress fractures, and hence prophylactic vitamin D supplementation as an injury risk mitigation strategy.

Osteomalacia in subtropical Auckland.

A 56-year-old man was referred with left-sided hip pain. MRI scans demonstrated an undisplaced stress fracture in the femoral neck and subchondral oedema within the femoral head. Bone densitometry showed T-scores of -2.0 at the spine, -3.5 at the femoral neck and -2.4 for the total hip. Laboratory tests revealed 25-hydroxyvitamin D <10 nmol/L. He was prescribed a 10-day course of calciferol 1.25 mg (50 000 IU)/day and started on calcium carbonate 1.25 g twice daily. Following the correction of vitamin D deficiency, his symptoms resolved. A striking feature of this patient was the complete reversal of 'osteoporosis' within 14 months with vitamin D and calcium supplementation. Bone mineral densities (BMDs) increased by 19.5% and 33.4% at the spine and hip, respectively. Such changes are never seen with conventional pharmacological management of osteoporosis. Vitamin D deficiency should be considered as a cause for reduced BMD in people with risk factors.

Osteoporosis development and vertebral fractures after abdominal irradiation in patients with gastric cancer.

BACKGROUND: Decrease in bone mineral density, osteoporosis development, bone toxicity and resulting insufficiency fractures as late effect of radiotherapy are not well known. Osteoporosis development related to radiotherapy has not been investigated properly and insufficiency fractures are rarely reported for vertebral bones. METHODS: Ninety-seven patients with gastric adenocarcinoma were evaluated for adjuvant treatment after surgery. While 73 out of 97 patients treated with adjuvant chemoradiotherapy comprised the study group, 24 out of 97 patients with early stage disease without need of adjuvant treatment comprised the control group. Bone mineral densities (BMD) of lumbar spine and femoral neck were measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry after surgery, and one year later in both groups. RESULTS: There was statistically significant decline in BMDs after one year in each group itself, however the decline in BMDs of the patients in the irradiated group was more pronounced when compared with the patients in the control group; p values were 0.02 for the decline in BMDs of lumbar spine, and 0.01 for femoral neck respectively. Insufficiency fractures were observed only in the irradiated patients (7 out of 73 patients) with a cumulative incidence of 9.6%. CONCLUSIONS: Abdominal irradiation as in the adjuvant treatment of gastric cancer results in decrease in BMD and osteoporosis. Insufficiency fracture risk in the radiation exposed vertabral bones is increased. Calcium and vitamin D replacement and other measures for prevention of osteoporosis and insufficiency fractures should be considered after abdominal irradiation.

Pharmacological interventions for the prevention of insufficiency fractures and avascular necrosis associated with pelvic radiotherapy in adults.

BACKGROUND: Pelvic radiotherapy is a treatment delivered to an estimated 150,000 to 300,000 people annually across high-income countries. Fractures due to normal stresses on weakened bone due to radiotherapy are termed insufficiency fractures. Pelvic radiotherapy-related interruption of the blood supply to the hip is termed avascular necrosis and is another recognised complication. The reported incidences of insufficiency fractures are 2.7% to 89% and risk of developing avascular necrosis is 0.5%. These complications lead to significant morbidity in terms of pain, immobility and consequently risk of infections, pressure sores and mortality. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of pharmacological interventions for preventing insufficiency fractures and avascular necrosis in adults over 18 years of age undergoing pelvic radiotherapy. SEARCH METHODS: We performed electronic literature searches in the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase and DARE to 19 April 2017. We also searched trial registries. Further relevant studies were identified through handsearching of citation lists of included studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or non RCTs with concurrent comparison groups including quasi-RCTs, cluster RCTs, prospective cohort studies and case series of 30 or more participants were screened. We included studies assessing the effect of pharmacological interventions in adults over 18 years of age undergoing radical pelvic radiotherapy as part of anticancer treatment for a primary pelvic malignancy. We excluded studies involving radiotherapy for bone metastases. We assessed use of pharmacological interventions at any stage before or during pelvic radiotherapy. Interventions included calcium or vitamin D (or both) supplementation, bisphosphonates, selective oestrogen receptor modulators, hormone replacement therapy (oestrogen or testosterone), denosumab and calcitonin. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. We contacted study authors to obtain missing data. Data were to be pooled using the random-effects model if study comparisons were similar, otherwise results were to be reported narratively. MAIN RESULTS: We included two RCTs (1167 participants). The first RCT compared zoledronic acid with placebo in 96 men undergoing pelvic radiotherapy for non-metastatic prostate cancer.The second RCT had four treatment arms, two of which evaluated zoledronic acid plus adjuvant androgen suppression compared with androgen suppression only in 1071 men undergoing pelvic radiotherapy for non-metastatic prostate cancer.Both studies were at a moderate to high risk of bias and all evidence was judged to be of very low certainty.The studies provided no evidence on the primary outcomes of the review and provided limited data in relation to secondary outcomes, such that meta-analyses were not possible. Both studies focused on interventions to improve bone health in relation to androgen deprivation rather than radiation-related insufficiency fractures and avascular necrosis. Few fractures were described in each study and those described were not specific to insufficiency fractures secondary to radiotherapy. Both studies reported that zoledronic acid in addition to androgen deprivation and pelvic radiotherapy led to improvements in BMD; however, the changes in BMD were measured and reported differently. There was no available evidence regarding adverse effects. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The evidence relating to interventions to prevent insufficiency fractures and avascular necrosis associated with pelvic radiotherapy in adults is of very low certainty. This review highlights the need for prospective clinical trials using interventions prior to and during radiotherapy to prevent radiation-related bone morbidity, insufficiency fractures and avascular necrosis. Future trials could involve prospective assessment of bone health including BMD and bone turnover markers prior to pelvic radiotherapy. The interventions for investigation could begin as radiotherapy commences and remain ongoing for 12 to 24 months. Bone turnover markers and BMD could be used as surrogate markers for bone health in addition to radiographic imaging to report on presence of insufficiency fractures and development of avascular necrosis. Clinical assessments and patient reported outcomes would help to identify any associated adverse effects of treatment and quality of life outcomes.

Stress Fractures: Etiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention.

Stress fractures are part of a continuum of changes in healthy bones in response to repeated mechanical deformation from physical activity. If the activity produces excessive repetitive stress, osteoclastic processes in the bone may proceed at a faster pace than osteoblastic processes, thus weakening the bone and augmenting susceptibility to stress fractures. Overall stress fracture incidence is about three cases per 1,000 in active duty Servicemembers, but it is much higher among Army basic trainees: 19 per 1,000 for men and 80 per 1,000 for women. Well-documented risk factors include female sex, white ethnicity, older age, taller stature, lower aerobic fitness, prior physical inactivity, greater amounts of current physical training, thinner bones, cigarette smoking, and inadequate intake of vitamin D and/or calcium. Individuals with stress fractures present with focal tenderness and local pain that is aggravated by physical activity and reduced by rest. A sudden increase in the volume of physical activity along with other risk factors is often reported. Simple clinical tests can assist in diagnosis, but more definitive imaging tests will eventually need to be conducted if a stress fracture is suspected. Plain radiographs are recommended as the initial imaging test, but magnetic resonance imaging has higher sensitivity and is more likely to detect the injury sooner. Treatment involves first determining if the stress fracture is of higher or lower risk; these are distinguished by anatomical location and whether the bone is loaded in tension (high risk) or compression (lower risk). Lowerrisk stress fractures can be initially treated by reducing loading on the injured bone through a reduction in activity or by substituting other activities. Higher-risk stress fractures should be referred to an orthopedist. Investigated prevention strategies include modifications to physical training programs, use of shock absorbing insoles, vitamin D and calcium supplementation, modifications of military equipment, and leadership education with injury surveillance.

Taking a holistic approach to managing difficult stress fractures.

Stress fractures and other bony stress injuries occur along a spectrum of severity which can impact treatment and prognosis. When treating these injuries, it should be borne in mind that no two stress fractures behave exactly alike. Given that they are not a consistent injury, standardized treatment protocols can be challenging to develop. Treatment should be individualized to the patient or athlete, the causative activity, the anatomical site, and the severity of the injury. A holistic approach to the treatment of the most difficult stress fractures should be taken by orthopedists and sports medicine specialists. This approach is necessary to obtain optimal outcomes, minimize loss of fitness and time away from sports participation, and decrease the risk of recurrence.

Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D is associated with increased risk of stress fracture during Royal Marine recruit training.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to investigate vitamin D status and stress fracture risk during Royal Marine military training. Poor vitamin D status was associated with an increased risk of stress fracture. Vitamin D supplementation may help to reduce stress fracture risk in male military recruits with low vitamin D status. INTRODUCTION: Stress fracture is a common overuse injury in military recruits, including Royal Marine (RM) training in the UK. RM training is recognised as one of the most arduous basic training programmes in the world. Associations have been reported between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and risk of stress fracture, but the threshold of 25(OH)D for this effect remains unclear. We aimed to determine if serum 25(OH)D concentrations were associated with stress fracture risk during RM training. METHODS: We prospectively followed 1082 RM recruits (males aged 16-32 years) through the 32-week RM training programme. Troops started training between September and July. Height, body weight and aerobic fitness were assessed at week 1. Venous blood samples were drawn at weeks 1, 15 and 32. Serum samples were analysed for 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone (PTH). RESULTS: Seventy-eight recruits (7.2 %) suffered a total of 92 stress fractures. Recruits with a baseline serum 25(OH)D concentration below 50 nmol L(-1) had a higher incidence of stress fracture than recruits with 25(OH)D concentration above this threshold (χ(2) (1) = 3.564, p = 0.042; odds ratio 1.6 (95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.0-2.6)). Baseline serum 25(OH)D varied from 47.0 ± 23.7 nmol L(-1) in February, to 97.3 ± 24.6 nmol L(-1) in July (overall mean 69.2 ± 29.2 nmol L(-1), n = 1016). There were weak inverse correlations between serum 25(OH)D and PTH concentrations at week 15 (r = -0.209, p < 0.001) and week 32 (r = -0.214, p < 0.001), but not at baseline. CONCLUSION: Baseline serum 25(OH)D concentration below 50 nmol L(-1) was associated with an increased risk of stress fracture. Further studies into the effects of vitamin D supplementation on stress fracture risk are certainly warranted.

Association of Vitamin D With Stress Fractures: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

Vitamin D is an essential, fat-soluble nutrient that is a key modulator of bone health. Despite the gaining popularity throughout published medical studies, no consensus has been reached regarding a serum vitamin D level that will guarantee adequate skeletal health in a patient with an increased functional demand. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the serum concentrations of vitamin D in patients with confirmed stress fractures. A total of 124 patients were included in our retrospective cohort study. Of the 124 patients, 53 had vitamin D levels measured within 3 months of diagnosis. An association was seen in patients with a stress fracture and vitamin D level measured, as 44 (83.02%) of the 53 patients had a serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level <40 ng/mL. Although an association was seen at our institution in patients with stress fractures and a serum vitamin D concentration <40 ng/mL, a larger and prospective investigation is warranted to further understand the effect of vitamin D level and stress fracture prevention in an active, nonmilitary population.

Stress fracture of the radial styloid process in a judo player: a case report.

Stress fractures of the upper limbs are uncommon, and are most often reported as individual cases or small series. In particularly, stress fractures around the wrist are even less common. A stress fracture of the radial styloid process in a judo player was surgically treated, and a favorable treatment outcome was obtained. A 16-year-old adolescent boy experienced pain in the right wrist, with no apparent trigger, while playing judo. Stress fracture of the radial styloid process was diagnosed with plain radiographs and was treated conservatively with cast immobilization. Although bone union was achieved, the fracture recurred after he resumed paying judo. Thus, surgical treatment was performed. The procedure was resection of the distal bone fragment. He resumed practicing 2 months postoperatively and returned to judo matches after 1 more month. As of 1 year after distal bone fragment resection, he was able to participate in judo without pain, limited range of motion, or instability of the wrist.

Hypophosphatemic osteomalacia: an unusual clinical presentation of multiple myeloma.

An unusual case of a 75-year-old man is presented who had multiple stress fractures due to adult onset hypophosphatemic osteomalacia, which was the result of Fanconi syndrome, with light chain cast proximal tubulopathy due to multiple myeloma. A 75-year-old man presented with diffuse pain and muscle weakness. He had multiple stress fractures, low serum phosphate, decreased renal tubular reabsorption of phosphate, and normal PTH and FGF23, indicating adult onset hypophosphatemic osteomalacia. Phosphate supplements with calcitriol resulted in clinical recovery and healing of stress fractures. Because of proteinuria, a renal biopsy was performed that revealed Fanconi syndrome with light chain cast proximal tubulopathy and light kappa chains were found in serum and urine. A bone biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of multiple myeloma, and treatment with chemotherapy resulted in cytological and clinical recovery.

Dietary Intake, Anthropometric Characteristics, and Iron and Vitamin D Status of Female Adolescent Ballet Dancers Living in New Zealand.

Ballet dancing is a multifaceted activity requiring muscular power, strength, endurance, flexibility, and agility; necessitating demanding training schedules. Furthermore dancers may be under aesthetic pressure to maintain a lean physique, and adolescent dancers require extra nutrients for growth and development. This cross-sectional study investigated the nutritional status of 47 female adolescent ballet dancers (13-18 years) living in Auckland, New Zealand. Participants who danced at least 1 hr per day 5 days per week completed a 4-day estimated food record, anthropometric measurements (Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry) and hematological analysis (iron and vitamin D). Mean BMI was 19.7 ± 2.4 kg/m2 and percentage body fat, 23.5 ± 4.1%. The majority (89.4%) of dancers had a healthy weight (5th-85th percentile) using BMI-for-age growth charts. Food records showed a mean energy intake of 8097.3 ± 2155.6 kJ/day (48.9% carbohydrate, 16.9% protein, 33.8% fat, 14.0% saturated fat). Mean carbohydrate and protein intakes were 4.8 ± 1.4 and 1.6 ± 0.5 g/kg/day respectively. Over half (54.8%) of dancers consumed less than 5 g carbohydrate/kg/day, and 10 (23.8%) less than 1.2 g protein/kg/day. Over 60% consumed less than the estimated average requirement for calcium, folate, magnesium and selenium. Thirteen (28.3%) dancers had suboptimal iron status (serum ferritin (SF) < 20 µg/L). Of these, four had iron deficiency (SF < 12 µg/L, hemoglobin (Hb) ≥ 120 g/L) and one iron deficiency anemia (SF < 12 µg/L, Hb < 120 g/L). Mean serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D was 75.1 ± 18.6 nmol/L, 41 (91.1%) had concentrations above 50 nmol/L. Female adolescent ballet dancers are at risk for iron deficiency, and possibly inadequate nutrient intakes.

Six-year follow-up of a characteristic osteolytic lesion in a patient with tumor-induced osteomalacia.

OBJECTIVE: Tumor-induced osteomalacia is a rare paraneoplastic syndrome characterized by hypophosphatemia and inappropriately normal or low 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. CLINICAL CASE: Here, we report a 6-year postoperative follow-up of a patient with oncogenic osteomalacia with a distinctive skeletal manifestation. The latter was characterized by an almost linear lytic lesion of a few millimeters with irregular borders, mainly involving the trabecular compartment but extending into cortical shell, located in the middle third of the right fibula. Six years after tumor resection, a sclerotic repair with a complete recovery was observed. Furthermore, we monitored a striking increase in bone mineral density throughout the observation period, reaching a peak of 73% over basal values at lumbar spine after 2 years; at total femur and radius, the peak was 47.5 and 4.6% respectively, after 4 years from tumor resection. CONCLUSIONS: We report for the first time that an osteolytic lesion may be part of the skeletal involvement in tumor-induced osteomalacia.

Current concept review: vitamin D and stress fractures.

Critical review of the available evidence indicates that a relationship exists between sufficient vitamin D status and stress fractures, although genetic and environmental factors are involved as well. Patients at high risk for stress fracture should be educated on protective training techniques and the potential benefits of supplementation with combined calcium and vitamin D, particularly if increased exercise is planned during winter or spring months, when vitamin D stores are at their lowest. The amount of vitamin D intake required is highly variable depending on many factors including sun exposure, and therefore many recommendations have been made for daily vitamin D intake requirements. While the Institute of Medicine guidelines suggest that 600 to 800 IU of vitamin D are required for adequate bone health in most adults, we recommend that most patients receive 800 to 1,000 IU and perhaps as high as 2,000 IU of vitamin D3 as outlined by the previously mentioned review article since vitamin D is a safe treatment with a high therapeutic index. Also, at least 1,000 mg of calcium per day is required for optimal bone health and 1,200 mg may be needed in certain populations. Orthopaedists should consider prescribing vitamin D and calcium prophylactically in high-risk patients. In patients in whom deficiency is a concern, serum 25(OH)D level is the appropriate screening test, with therapeutic goals for bone health being at least 50 nmol/L (20 ng/mL) and may be as high as 90 to 100 nmol/L (36 to 40 ng/mL).

Stress fractures in runners.

Stress fractures are a relatively common entity in athletes, in particular, runners. Physicians and health care providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for stress fractures in runners presenting with insidious onset of focal bone tenderness associated with recent changes in training intensity or regimen. It is particularly important to recognize "high-risk" fractures, as these are associated with an increased risk of complication. A patient with confirmed radiographic evidence of a high-risk stress fracture should be evaluated by an orthopedic surgeon. Runners may benefit from orthotics, cushioned sneakers, interval training, and vitamin/calcium supplementation as a means of stress fracture prevention.