Effect of arctigenin on neurological diseases: A review.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Arctium lappa L. is a common specie of Asteraceae. Its main active ingredient, Arctigenin (AG), in mature seeds exerts pharmacological effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS). AIM OF THE STUDY: To review studies on the specific effects of the AG mechanism on various CNS diseases and elucidate signal transduction mechanisms and their pharmacological actions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This investigation reviewed the essential role of AG in treating neurological disorders. Basic information on Arctium lappa L. was retrieved from the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China. The related articles from 1981 to 2022 on the network database (including CNKI, PubMed, and Wan Fang and so on) were reviewed using AG and CNS diseases-related terms such as Arctigenin and Epilepsy. RESULTS: It was confirmed that AG has a therapeutic effect on Alzheimer's disease, Glioma, infectious CNS diseases (such as Toxoplasma and Japanese Encephalitis Virus), Parkinson's disease, Epilepsy, etc. In these diseases, related experiments such as a Western blot analysis revealed that AG could alter the content of some key factors (such as the reduction of Aß in Alzheimer's disease). However, in-vivo AG's metabolic process and possible metabolites are still undetermined. CONCLUSION: Based on this review, the existing pharmacological research has indeed made objective progress to elucidate how AG prevents and treats CNS diseases, especially senile degenerative disease such as Alzheimer's diseases. It was revealed that AG could be used as a potential nervous system drug as it has a wide range of effects in theory with markedly high application value, especially in the elder group. However, the existing studies are limited to in-vitro experiments; therefore, little is known about how AG metabolizes and functions in-vivo, limiting its clinical application and requiring further research.

The therapeutic potential of arctigenin against multiple human diseases: A mechanistic review.

BACKGROUND: Arctigenin (ATG), a dibenzyl butyrolactone lignan compound, is one of the major bioactive components from the medicinal plant Arctium lappa. ATG possesses remarkable therapeutic potential against a wide range of human diseases, such as cancers, immune disorders and chronical diseases. The molecular mechanisms behind the biological effects of ATG have been intensively studied. PURPOSE: This review aims to systematically summarize the updated knowledge of the proteins and signaling pathways behind the curative property of ATG, and further analyze the potential connections between them. METHOD: SciFinder, Pubmed, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases were queried for publications reporting the therapeutic properties of ATG. "Arctigenin", "disease", "cancer", "inflammation", "organ damage", "infection", "toxicity" and "pharmacokinetics" were used as the searching titles. RESULT: 625 publications were identified and 95 met the inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria. 42 studies described the molecular mechanisms implicated in ATG treatments. Several proteins including phosphodiesterase subtype 4D (PDE4D), estrogen receptor (ER) ß, protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and transmembrane protein 16A (TMEM16A) are targeted by ATG in different settings. The frequently described signaling pathways are TLR4/NF-κB, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) signalings. CONCLUSION: Inhibition of PI3K/AKT pathway and activation of AMPK signaling play the pivotal roles in the therapeutic effects of ATG. PI3K/AKT and AMPK signaling widely link to other signaling pathways, modulating various biological processes such as anti-inflammation, anti-oxidative stress, anti-fibrosis, anti-ER stress, anti-steatosis and pro-apoptosis, which constitute the curative mechanisms of ATG against multiple human diseases.

Pharmacological Activities of Soursop (Annona muricata Lin.).

Soursop (Annona muricata Lin.) is a plant belonging to the Annonaceae family that has been widely used globally as a traditional medicine for many diseases. In this review, we discuss the traditional use, chemical content, and pharmacological activities of A.muricata. From 49 research articles that were obtained from 1981 to 2021, A.muricata's activities were shown to include anticancer (25%), antiulcer (17%), antidiabetic (14%), antiprotozoal (10%), antidiarrhea (8%), antibacterial (8%), antiviral (8%), antihypertensive (6%), and wound healing (4%). Several biological activities and the general mechanisms underlying the effects of A.muricata have been tested both in vitro and in vivo. A.muricata contains chemicals such as acetogenins (annomuricins and annonacin), alkaloids (coreximine and reticuline), flavonoids (quercetin), and vitamins, which are predicted to be responsible for the biological activity of A.muricata.

Clinical and preclinical features of eribulin-related peripheral neuropathy.

Different microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) possess distinct modes of action and their clinical use in cancer treatment is often limited by chemotherapy-induced peripheral neurotoxicity (CIPN). Eribulin is a member of the halichondrin class of antineoplastic drugs, which is correlated with a high antimitotic activity against metastatic breast cancer and liposarcoma. Current clinical evidence suggests that eribulin treatment, unlike some of the other MTAs, is associated with a relatively low incidence of severe peripheral neuropathy. This suggests that different MTAs possess unique mechanisms of neuropathologic induction. Animal models reliably reproduced eribulin-related neuropathy providing newer insights in CIPN pathogenesis, and they are highly suitable for in vivo functional, symptomatic and morphological characterizations of eribulin-related CIPN. The purpose of this review is to discuss the most recent literature on eribulin with a focus on both clinical and preclinical data, to explain the molecular events responsible for its favorable neurotoxic profile.

Dihydrotanshinone Attenuates LPS-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice by Upregulating LXRα.

Dihydrotanshinone (DIH) is an extract of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. It has been reported that DIH could regulate NF-κB signaling pathway. The aim of this study was to investigate whether DIH could protect mice from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. In this study, sixty mice were randomly divided into five groups, one group as blank control group, the second group as LPS control group, and the last three groups were pre-injected with different doses of DIH and then inhaled LPS for experimental comparison. After 12 h of LPS treatment, the wet-dry ratio, histopathlogical changes, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity of lungs were measured. In addition, ELISA kits were used to measure the levels of TNF-α and IL-1ß inflammatory cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF), and western blot analysis was used to measure the activity of NF-κB signaling pathway. The results demonstrated that DIH could effectively reduce pulmonary edema, MPO activity, and improve the lung histopathlogical changes. Furthermore, DIH suppressed the levels of inflammatory cytokines in BALF, such as TNF-α and IL-1ß. In addition, DIH could also downregulate the activity of NF-κB signaling pathway. We also found that DIH dose-dependently increased the expression of LXRα. In addition, DIH could inhibit LPS-induced IL-8 production and NF-κB activation in A549 cells. And the inhibitory effects were reversed by LXRα inhibitor geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). Therefore, we speculate that DIH regulates LPS-induced ALI in mice by increasing LXRα expression, which subsequently inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway.

Atractylodin Suppresses TGF-ß-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Alveolar Epithelial Cells and Attenuates Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis in Mice.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is characterized by fibrotic change in alveolar epithelial cells and leads to the irreversible deterioration of pulmonary function. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1)-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in type 2 lung epithelial cells contributes to excessive collagen deposition and plays an important role in IPF. Atractylodin (ATL) is a kind of herbal medicine that has been proven to protect intestinal inflammation and attenuate acute lung injury. Our study aimed to determine whether EMT played a crucial role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis and whether EMT can be utilized as a therapeutic target by ATL treatment to mitigate IPF. To address this topic, we took two steps to investigate: 1. Utilization of anin vitro EMT model by treating alveolar epithelial cells (A549 cells) with TGF-ß1 followed by ATL treatment for elucidating the underlying pathways, including Smad2/3 hyperphosphorylation, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway overexpression, Snail and Slug upregulation, and loss of E-cadherin. Utilization of an in vivo lung injury model by treating bleomycin on mice followed by ATL treatment to demonstrate the therapeutic effectiveness, such as, less collagen deposition and lower E-cadherin expression. In conclusion, ATL attenuates TGF-ß1-induced EMT in A549 cells and bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice.

Arctigenin, an anti-tumor agent; a cutting-edge topic and up-to-the-minute approach in cancer treatment.

Today, herbal-derived compounds are being increasingly studied in cancer treatment. Over the past decade, Arctigenin has been introduced as a bioactive dibenzylbutyrolactone lignan which is found in Chinese herbal medicines. In addition to anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory functions, Arctigenin has attracted growing attention due to its anti-tumor capabilities. It has been shown that Arctigenin can induce apoptosis and necrosis and abolish drug resistance in tumor cells by inducing apoptotic signaling pathways, caspases, cell cycle arrest, and the modulating proteasome. Moreover, Arctigenin mediates other anti-tumor functions through several mechanisms. It has been demonstrated that Arctigenin can act as an anti-inflammatory compound to inhibit inflammation in the tumor microenvironment. It also downregulates factors involved in tumor metastasis and angiogenesis, such as matrix metalloproteinases, N-cadherin, TGF-ß, and VEGF. Additionally, Arctigenin, through modulation of MAPK signaling pathways and stress-related proteins, is able to abolish tumor cell growth in nutrient-deprived conditions. Due to the limited solubility of Arctigenin in water, it is suggested that modification of this compound through amino acid esterification can improve its pharmacogenetic properties. Collectively, it is hoped that using Arctigenin or its derivates might introduce new chemotherapeutic approaches in future treatment.

Tanshinones inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation by alleviating mitochondrial damage to protect against septic and gouty inflammation.

Tanshinones, the active ingredients derived from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza, have been widely used as traditional medicinal herbs for treating human diseases. Although tanshinones showed anti-inflammatory effects in many studies, large knowledge gaps remain regarding their underlying mechanisms. Here, we identified 15 tanshinones that suppressed the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and studied their structure-activity relationships. Three tanshinones (tanshinone IIA, isocryptotanshinone, and dihydrotanshinone I) reduced mitochondrial reactive-oxygen species production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/nigericin-stimulated macrophages and correlated with altered mitochondrial membrane potentials, mitochondria complexes activities, and adenosine triphosphate and protonated-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide production. The tanshinones may confer mitochondrial protection by promoting autophagy and the AMP-activated protein kinase pathway. Importantly, our findings demonstrate that dihydrotanshinone I improved the survival of mice with LPS shock and ameliorated inflammatory responses in septic and gouty animals. Our results suggest a potential pharmacological mechanism whereby tanshinones can effectively treat inflammatory diseases, such as septic and gouty inflammation.

Discovery of Novel and Potent N-Methyl-d-aspartate Receptor Positive Allosteric Modulators with Antidepressant-like Activity in Rodent Models.

N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are glutamate-gated Na+ and Ca2+-permeable ion channels involved in excitatory synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity. NMDAR hypofunction has long been implicated in the pathophysiology including major depressive disorders (MDDs). Herein, we report a series of furan-2-carboxamide analogues as novel NMDAR-positive allosteric modulators (PAMs). Through structure-based virtual screen and electrophysiological tests, FS2921 was identified as a novel NMDAR PAM with potential antidepressant effects. Further structure-activity relationship studies led to the discovery of novel analogues with increased potentiation. Compound 32h caused a significant increase in NMDAR excitability in vitro and impressive activity in the forced swimming test. Moreover, compound 32h showed no significant inhibition of hERG or cell viability and possessed a favorable PK/PD profile. Our study presented a series of novel NMDAR PAMs and provided potential opportunities for discovering of new antidepressants.

Atractylodin inhibited the migration and induced autophagy in cholangiocarcinoma cells via PI3K/AKT/mTOR and p38MAPK signalling pathways.

OBJECTIVES: The effects of atractylodin (ATD), the bioactive compound from Atractylodes lancea, on migration and autophagy status of cholangiocarcinoma cell line were investigated. METHODS: Cytotoxic activity and effects on cell migration and invasion were evaluated by MTT and trans-well assay, respectively. Autophagy and underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated using flow cytometry and western blot analysis. KEY FINDINGS: ATD regulated the activity of PI3K/AKT/mTOR and p38MAPK signalling pathways which contributed to autophagy induction. HuCCT-1 cell growth was inhibited by ATD in a time- and dose-dependent manner. ATD inhibited the migration and invasion of HuCCT1 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. It also induced autophagy in HuCCT1 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The SB202190 (autophagy inducer) and 3-MA (autophagy inhibitor) significantly increased and decreased the rate of ATD-induced autophagy, respectively. The 24 h exposure of ATD inhibited the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) and increased Beclin-1 expression and LC3 conversion. It also reduced p-AKT/AKT, p-mTOR/mTOR and p-p38MAPK/p38MAPK. CONCLUSIONS: ATD inhibits the proliferation and induces CCA cell autophagy via regulating PI3K/AKT/mTOR and p38MAPK signalling pathways.

Effectiveness and healthcare costs of eribulin versus capecitabine among metastatic breast cancer patients in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the real-world effectiveness and costs of eribulin to those of capecitabine in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) pretreated with anthracyclines and taxanes. METHODS: This study extracted data from the Health and Welfare Database in Taiwan to identify MBC patients, and then eribulin and capecitabine users were matched at a 1:1 ratio by age, residential region, Charlson Comorbidity Index score, and molecular subtype of BC cell. The overall survival (OS) and time-to-treatment discontinuation (TTD) curves were plotted using the Kaplan-Meier method. Healthcare utilization and costs between the two groups were compared. RESULTS: A total of 24,550 MBC patients were identified, and 298 patients were enrolled in each group after matching. The median OS was 11.8 months for eribulin (95%CI: 11.5-13.5 months) and 15.2 months for capecitabine (95%CI: 15.3-17.9 months; HR = 1.7, p < 0.0001). The median TTD was 4.0 months for eribulin and 6.6 months for capecitabine (HR = 1.6; p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found between the two groups in patients with >4 prior chemotherapy agents (OS: HR 1.1, 95%CI 0.8-1.5; TTD: HR 1.2, 95%CI 0.9-1.7). The total healthcare costs per patient during the treatment period were NT$580,523.8 for eribulin versus NT$497,223.8 for capecitabine (p < 0.0001), and total medication costs were NT$438,335.8 and NT$348,438.4 (p < 0.0001), respectively. CONCLUSION: Although eribulin showed an attenuated effect in the real-world setting in Taiwan, it may serve as an alternative for capecitabine in a heavy pretreated population. The total healthcare and medication costs were found to be higher with eribulin treatment.

A transposon screen identifies enhancement of NF-κB pathway as a mechanism of resistance to eribulin.

BACKGROUND: Eribulin mesylate (eribulin) is an efficient microtubule inhibitor that is used for metastatic breast cancer. However, breast cancer can develop resistance to eribulin. This resistance mechanism needs to be elucidated. METHODS: A transposon mutagenesis screen was conducted using a pPB-SB-CMV-puro-SD plasmid and pCMV-PBase transposase. Viability and cytotoxicity were analyzed by MTT assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Real-time PCR and western blot were used for gene expression analysis. In addition, vivo study was also designed to analyze therapy efficiency. RESULTS: TAB2, which is part of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, was identified as a candidate eribulin-resistant gene. TAB2 down-regulation resulted in significantly lower cell viability and higher cytotoxicity of cells treated with eribulin, while TAB2 up-regulation showed opposite results. Similarly, combination of NF-κB inhibitors [Bay-117082 and QNZ (quinazoline derivative)] with eribulin showed significantly lower cell viability and higher drug cytotoxicity than single agent treatment with eribulin in MDA-MB-231 cells. However, QNZ increased NF-κB activity in MCF7 cells by up-regulating TAB2, which reduced the sensitivity to eribulin. Furthermore, combination of Bay-117082 with eribulin induced greater regression of MDA-MB-231 tumors compared to eribulin monotherapy in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: These results consistently illustrated that TAB2-NF-κB pathway may increases resistance to eribulin in breast cancer models. Moreover, these results support the use of a combination strategy of eribulin with NF-κB inhibitors, and provide evidence that transposon mutagenesis screens are capable of identifying drug-resistant genes.

Antiangiogenic properties of lichen secondary metabolites.

Lichens are symbiotic organisms which are composed fungi and algae and/or cyanobacteria. They produce a variety of characteristic secondary metabolites. Such substances have various biological properties including antimicrobial, antiviral, and antitumor activities. Angiogenesis, the growth of new vessels from pre-existing vessels, contributes to numerous diseases including cancer, arthritis, atherosclerosis, infectious, and immune disorders. Antiangiogenic therapy is a promising approach for the treatment of such diseases by inhibiting the new vessel formation. Technological advances have led to the development of various antiangiogenic agents and have made possible antiangiogenic therapy in many diseases associated with angiogenesis. Some lichens and their metabolites are used in the drug industry, but many have not yet been tested for their antiangiogenic effects. The cytotoxic and angiogenic capacities of lichen-derived small molecules have been demonstrated in vivo and in vitro experiments. Therefore, some of them may be used as antiangiogenic agents in the future. The secondary compounds of lichen whose antiangiogenic effect has been studied in the literature are usnic acid, barbatolic acid, vulpinic acid, olivetoric acid, emodin, secalonic acid D, and parietin. In this article, we review the antiangiogenic effects and cellular targets of these lichen-derived metabolites.

Prognostic Nutritional Index Is Superior to Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte Ratio as a Prognostic Marker in Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients Treated With Eribulin.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The prognostic nutritional index (PNI) and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) are prognostic markers for operable breast cancer. However, their importance in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) remains unclear. This study aimed to evaluate these parameters as prognostic markers in MBC patients treated with eribulin. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 60 patients with MBC treated with eribulin were included. RESULTS: Although high PNI and low NLR were correlated with better progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), PNI had stronger impact as prognostic marker than NLR (PNI: HR=0.35, p=0.0008 for PFS and HR=0.27, p=0.0068 for OS; NLR: HR=0.71, p=0.081 for PFS and HR=0.63, p=0.14 for OS). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that PNI was an independent predictor of PFS (HR=0.30, p=0.0009). CONCLUSION: PNI could be a more reliable prognostic marker for MBC patients treated with eribulin than NLR.

Wikstromol from Wikstroemia indica induces apoptosis and suppresses migration of MDA-MB-231 cells via inhibiting PI3K/Akt pathway.

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most severe type of breast cancer due to the lack of specific targets and rapid metastasis, which result in the poor prognosis. Recently, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway has emerged as a potential target for the treatment of TNBC. In our research interest to discover phytochemicals targeting TNBC, we have investigated wikstromol from Wikstroemia indica using the human TNBC MDA-MB-231 cells. The results showed wikstromol at 10 µM inhibited cell growth of MDA-MB-231 cells which was confirmed by MTT assay. Further DAPI staining has revealed wikstromol at 10 µM induced apoptosis of cancer cells, which was associated with the activation of caspase-3 following down-regulation of Bcl-2 as well as up-regulation of Bax, cleaved PARP and phosphorylated p53. Meanwhile, it was observed at 0.1 µM wikstromol suppressed the migration of the cancer cells via decreasing transcription of NF-κB and reducing activity and secretion of downstream MMP-9. In addition, p-PI3K and p-Akt were down-regulated in MDA-MB-231 cells in the presence of wikstromol at 0.1 µM, which indicated inactivation of PI3K/Akt pathway was involved in these inhibitory effects.

8-Epi-xanthatin induces the apoptosis of DU145 prostate carcinoma cells through signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 inhibition and reactive oxygen species generation.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is aberrantly activated in many human cancers. We tried to find STAT3 inhibitors from natural sources and found that Xanthium fruit extracts decreased phosphorylation of STAT3-Y705. 8-Epi-xanthatin (EXT) was isolated from the extracts. When DU145 cancer cells were treated with EXT, p-STAT3-Y705 was decreased with an IC50 of 3.2 µM. EXT decreased the expression of STAT3 target genes, such as cyclin A, cyclin D1, and BCL-2, and induced PARP cleavage, indicating apoptotic cell death. Downregulation of EXT-induced p-STAT3-Y705 was rescued by pretreating DU145 cells with antioxidants, such as N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), indicating that reactive oxygen species (ROS) were involved in the EXT-induced inhibition of STAT3 activation. Furthermore, we proved the association of EXT with STAT3 protein by using a drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) assay and a cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA). EXT inhibited proliferation of DU145 cells with a GI50 of 6 µM and reduced tumor growth in mice xenografted with DU145 cells. Immunoblotting showed that phosphorylation of STAT3-Y705 was lower in EXT-treated tumor tissue than in control tissues. Collectively, we found that EXT binds to, and inhibits, STAT3 activation and could be a lead compound for anticancer therapy.

Sesquiterpene lactones from Lychnophora species: Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant pathways to treat acute gout.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Lychnophora trichocarpha and Lychnophora passerina are species used in folk medicine to treat inflammation, pain, and rheumatism. Previous studies have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory effect of ethanol extracts of these species and identified that sesquiterpene lactones contribute to this activity. AIM OF THE STUDY: Gout is an acute inflammatory arthritis caused by the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in joints. Inflammation in joints induces oxidative stress in defense cells, releasing pro-inflammatory mediators. This study has three objectives: (1) to demonstrate the effects of sesquiterpene lactones lychnopholide and eremantholide C isolated from L. trichocarpha and goyazensolide isolated from L. passerina on arthritis induced by MSU crystals in C57BL6 mice; (2) to determine whether or not these compounds can inhibit the migration of neutrophils and the release of TNF-α and IL-1ß cytokines in the inflammation region; and (3) to evaluate the effects of sesquiterpene lactones on the activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in the cartilage of C57BL/6 mice with gouty arthritis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antioxidant activities of sesquiterpene lactones in C57BL/6 mice with MSU crystal-induced arthritis were evaluated. In our experimental model, the mice were injected with MSU crystals in the tibiofemoral joint to induce arthritis and then treated with indomethacin, vitamin C, and sesquiterpene lactones. Nociception was evaluated before and after inflammation induction and treatments, neutrophil migration, IL-1ß and TNF-α concentrations, and SOD and CAT activities. RESULTS: Sesquiterpene lactones exerted an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting neutrophil migration and TNF-α production. These compounds also demonstrated antinociceptive and antioxidant activities. CONCLUSION: Lychnopholide, eremantholide C, and goyazensolide improved the inflammation induced by MSU crystals by inhibiting the migration of neutrophils to the inflamed area and by blocking the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. In addition, sesquiterpene lactones reduced oxidative stress by activating SOD and CAT. These results suggest that sesquiterpene lactones have anti-gout activity through the inflammation, pain, and oxidative stress pathways.

Enhanced anti-amnestic effect of donepezil by Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) via further improvement in pro-cholinergic and antioxidative activities.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: EGb 761 is a standardized dry extract of Ginkgo biloba L. leaves traditionally used by Eastern Asia and has been associated with beneficial effects on neurodegeneration disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. AIM OF THE STUDY: Since beneficial interactions between EGb 761 and donepezil have been observed in previous clinical studies, the current study was proposed aiming to further explore related mechanisms from both pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics aspects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Pharmacodynamic interactions were studied in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment rats received two-weeks treatment of vehicle, EGb 761 and/or donepezil by the Morris water maze test and ex vivo evaluation of biomarkers of cholinergic transmission and oxidative stress in rat brain. In the meantime, pharmacokinetic profiles of donepezil and bilobalide were obtained and compared among all treatment groups. In addition, impact of the bioavailable EGb 761 components on donepezil brain penetration was evaluated with the hCMEC/D3 cell monolayer model. RESULTS: Scopolamine-induced rats with co-treatment of EGb 761 and donepezil had significantly improved cognitive function in the Morris water maze test with increased brain levels of superoxide dismutase and decreased brain levels of acetylcholinesterase and malondialdehyde than that with treatment of only EGb 761 or donepezil. Despite such beneficial pharmacodynamics outcomes, the two-week co-treatment of EGb 761 and donepezil did not alter the plasma pharmacokinetics and brain uptake of donepezil or bilobalide, which was further verified in the hCMEC/D3 monolayer model. CONCLUSION: Co-administration of EGb 761 and donepezil exerted better anti-amnestic effect via further enhanced pro-cholinergic and antioxidative effects of EGb 761 or donepezil in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment rat without alteration in their systemic/brain exposure.

Selective cytotoxic and anti-metastatic activity in DU-145 prostate cancer cells induced by Annona muricata L. bark extract and phytochemical, annonacin.

BACKGROUND: Annona muricata L. was identified as a popular medicinal plant in treatment regimens among cancer patients in Jamaica by a previously conducted structured questionnaire. Ethnomedically used plant parts, were examined in this study against human prostate cancer cells for the first time and mechanisms of action elucidated for the most potent of them, along with the active phytochemical, annonacin. METHODS: Nine extracts of varying polarity from the leaves and bark of A. muricata were assessed initially for cytotoxicity using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay on PC-3 prostate cancer cells and the ethyl acetate bark (EAB) extract was identified as the most potent. EAB extract was then standardized for annonacin content using High-performance Liquid Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and shown to be effective against a second prostate cancer cell line (DU-145) also. The mode of cell death in DU-145 cells were assessed via several apoptotic assays including induction of increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspases and annexin V externalization combined with morphological observations using confocal microscopy. In addition, the potential to prevent metastasis was examined via inhibition of cell migration, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiogenesis using the chorioallantoic membrane assay (CAM). RESULTS: Annonacin and EAB extract displayed selective and potent cytotoxicity against the DU-145 prostate carcinoma cells with IC50 values of 0.1 ± 0.07 µM and 55.501 ± 0.55 µg/mL respectively, without impacting RWPE-1 normal prostate cells, in stark contrast to chemotherapeutic docetaxel which lacked such selectivity. Docetaxel's impact on the cancerous DU-145 was improved by 50% when used in combination with EAB extract. Insignificant levels of intracellular ROS content, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, Caspase 3/7 activation, annexin V content, along with stained morphological evaluations, pointed to a non-apoptotic mode of cell death. The extract at 50 µg/mL deterred cell migration in the wound-healing assay, while inhibition of angiogenesis was displayed in the CAM and VEGF inhibition assays for both EAB (100 µg /mL) and annonacin (0.5 µM). CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, the standardized EAB extract and annonacin appear to induce selective and potent cell death via a necrotic pathway in DU-145 cells, while also preventing cell migration and angiogenesis, which warrant further examinations for mechanistic insights and validity in-vivo.

Matairesinol ameliorates experimental autoimmune uveitis by suppression of IRBP-specific Th17 cells.

We investigated the effects of matairesinol (MAT) in the experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), a classical animal model of uveitis. We found that treatment with MAT could alleviate intraocular inflammation of EAU. Notably, Th17 cells in eyes of EAU mice could be predominantly restrained by MAT. Furthermore, MAT could inhibit Th17 differentiation in vitro. In addition, MAT inhibited the signaling of MAPK and ROR-γt, a pivotal transcription factor for Th17 cell differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results suggested that MAT had immune-suppressive effects on autoimmune inflammation through Th17 cells.