Term Infant Formulas Influencing Gut Microbiota: An Overview.

Intestinal colonization of the neonate is highly dependent on the term of pregnancy, the mode of delivery, the type of feeding [breast feeding or formula feeding]. Postnatal immune maturation is dependent on the intestinal microbiome implementation and composition and type of feeding is a key issue in the human gut development, the diversity of microbiome, and the intestinal function. It is well established that exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months or more has several benefits with respect to formula feeding. The composition of the new generation of infant formulas aims in mimicking HM by reproducing its beneficial effects on intestinal microbiome and on the gut associated immune system (GAIS). Several approaches have been developed currently for designing new infant formulas by the addition of bioactive ingredients such as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), probiotics, prebiotics [fructo-oligosaccharides (FOSs) and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOSs)], or by obtaining the so-called post-biotics also known as milk fermentation products. The aim of this article is to guide the practitioner in the understanding of these different types of Microbiota Influencing Formulas by listing and summarizing the main concepts and characteristics of these different models of enriched IFs with bioactive ingredients.

Transient Effect of Infant Formula Supplementation on the Intestinal Microbiota.

Breastfeeding is the gold standard for feeding infants because of its long-term benefits to health and development, but most infants in the United States are not exclusively breastfed in the first six months. We enrolled 24 infants who were either exclusively breastfed or supplemented with formula by the age of one month. We collected diet information, stool samples for evaluation of microbiotas by 16S rRNA sequencing, and blood samples for assessment of immune development by flow cytometry from birth to 6 months of age. We further typed the Bifidobacterium strains in stool samples whose 16S rRNA sequencing showed the presence of Bifidobacteriaceae. Supplementation with formula during breastfeeding transiently changed the composition of the gut microbiome, but the impact dissipated by six months of age. For example, Bifidobacterium longum, a bacterial species highly correlated with human milk consumption, was found to be significantly different only at 1 month of age but not at later time points. No immunologic differences were found to be associated with supplementation, including the development of T-cell subsets, B cells, or monocytes. These data suggest that early formula supplementation, given in addition to breast milk, has minimal lasting impact on the gut microbiome or immunity.

The Interplay between the Gut Microbiome and the Immune System in the Context of Infectious Diseases throughout Life and the Role of Nutrition in Optimizing Treatment Strategies.

Infectious diseases and infections remain a leading cause of death in low-income countries and a major risk to vulnerable groups, such as infants and the elderly. The immune system plays a crucial role in the susceptibility, persistence, and clearance of these infections. With 70-80% of immune cells being present in the gut, there is an intricate interplay between the intestinal microbiota, the intestinal epithelial layer, and the local mucosal immune system. In addition to the local mucosal immune responses in the gut, it is increasingly recognized that the gut microbiome also affects systemic immunity. Clinicians are more and more using the increased knowledge about these complex interactions between the immune system, the gut microbiome, and human pathogens. The now well-recognized impact of nutrition on the composition of the gut microbiota and the immune system elucidates the role nutrition can play in improving health. This review describes the mechanisms involved in maintaining the intricate balance between the microbiota, gut health, the local immune response, and systemic immunity, linking this to infectious diseases throughout life, and highlights the impact of nutrition in infectious disease prevention and treatment.

A review of probiotic supplementation in healthy adults: helpful or hype?

Probiotic supplements have a positive impact on several health outcomes. However, the majority of published studies have focused on populations with specific health pathologies. Therefore, this study reviewed the current literature on the health effects of probiotic consumption in "healthy adults." The findings from this review may help guide consumers, researchers, and manufacturers regarding probiotic supplementation. Relevant literature published between 1990 and August 2017 was reviewed. Studies were included if they were experimental trials, included healthy adults, used live bacteria, and had accessible full-text articles published in English. Included studies were classified according to common foci that emerged. Forty-five studies were included in this review. Five foci emerged: gut microbiota changes (n = 15); immune system response (n = 16); lipid profile and cardiovascular disease risk (n = 14); gastrointestinal discomfort (n = 11); and female reproductive health (n = 4). Results suggest that probiotic supplementation in healthy adults can lead to transient improvement in gut microbiota concentration of supplement-specific bacteria. Evidence also supports the role of probiotics in improving immune system responses, stool consistency, bowel movement, and vaginal lactobacilli concentration. There is insufficient evidence to support the role of probiotics to improve blood lipid profile. Probiotic consumption can improve in the immune, gastrointestinal, and female reproductive health systems in healthy adults. However, this review failed to support the ability of probiotics to cause persistent changes in gut microbiota, or improve lipid profile in healthy adults. The feasibility of probiotics consumption to provide benefits in healthy adults requires further investigation.

The microbiome and development of allergic disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: First, to review how the global rise in prevalence of asthma prompted studies of the relationships between microbial exposure in early infancy, the rate and pattern of development of immune function, and the development of allergic sensitization and of wheezing in childhood. And, second, to review how those studies laid the groundwork for a possible strategy for primary prevention of asthma through manipulation of the microbiome of the gastrointestinal and/or respiratory tracts. RECENT FINDINGS: Atopy and asthma are complex diseases thought to result from a 'gene-by-environment' interaction; the rapidity of their rise in prevalence points to a change in environment as most likely causal. Epidemiologic studies noting associations between events in infancy and later development of atopic diseases have suggested that their rise in prevalence is related to a deficiency in microbial exposure in early life. The findings from birth cohort studies of humans and from interventional studies of mice converge in suggesting that a deficiency in microbial colonization of the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract by certain commensal microbes results in skewed development of systemic and/or local immune function that increases susceptibility to allergic sensitization and to viral lower respiratory infection. Recent studies are now honing in on identifying the microbes, or collection of microbes, whose collective functions are necessary for induction of immune tolerance, and thus of reduced susceptibility. SUMMARY: Atopy and asthma appear to have their roots in an insufficiency of early-life exposure to the diverse environmental microbiota necessary to ensure colonization of the gastrointestinal and/or respiratory tracts with the commensal microbes necessary for induction of balanced, toleragenic immune function. Identification of the commensal bacteria necessary, now ever closer at hand, will lay the groundwork for the development of strategies for primary prevention of atopic disease, especially of childhood asthma.

Rectal pre-treatment with ozonized oxygen (O3) aggravates clinic status in septic rats treated with amoxicillin/clavulanate / El pretratamiento rectal con ozono (O3) empeora el estado clínico de ratas sépticas tratadas con amoxicilina/clavulánico

INTRODUCTION: Despite the advanced antibiotic therapies, sepsis continues being a clinical entity with high morbidity and mortality. The ozone/oxygen mixture (O3/O2) has been reported to exhibit positive effects on immunity. The aim of our study was to analyze whether (O3/O2) combined with amoxicillin/clavulanate has any influence on the morbidity and mortality of septic rats. METHODS: We used 48 Sprague-Dawley rats randomly allocated to 6 groups (n = 8): healthy (C), septic (I), healthy+ozone therapy (O3), septic+amoxicillin/clavulanate (AMC), septic+amoxicillin/clavulanate+ ozone therapy (AMC/O3 ) and septic + ozone therapy (I/O3 ). O3 /O2 was administered rectally at increasing O3 concentrations during 10 days prior to the onset of sepsis model (intraperitoneally injection of fecal material) or saline administration in healthy control rats. Later (post-inoculation), 3 days per week, O3 was also administered. Vital signs were recorded, and microbiological, hematological and histopathological studies were performed. RESULTS: The number of surviving animal/total was higher in AMC (8/8) than in AMC/O3 (4/8) p = 0.077. The percentage of surviving animals with pneumonia was higher in AMC/O3 than in AMC (100% vs 37.5%). In dead animals, AMC/O3 rats had a significantly higher percentage of lesions: Cardiac lesions, pulmonary hemorrhages and pleuritis (100%) and serositis/peritonitis (75%). Only Escherichia coli (2 different bio- types) was isolated from blood and/or peritoneal fluid from all infected groups. A significant decrease in the percentage of band neutrophils from the surviviors belonging to AMC/O3 vs AMC was observed (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Rectal pre-treatment with O3/O2 aggravates clinic status in septic rats treated with amoxi- cillin/clavulanate

INTRODUCCIÓN: A pesar de los avances en terapia antibiótica, la sepsis sigue siendo una entidad clínica con alta morbimortalidad. Se ha publicado que la mezcla ozono/oxígeno (O3/O2) presenta efectos beneficiosos sobre el sistema inmunológico. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar si (O3 /O2 ) combinado con amoxicilina/clavulánico tiene efectos en la morbimortalidad de ratas sépticas. MÉTODOS: Utilizamos 48 ratas Sprague-Dawley distribuidas aleatoriamente en 6 grupos (n = 8): sanas (C), sépticas (I), sanas+ozonoterapia (O3), sépticas+amoxicilina/clavulánico (AMC), sépticas+amoxicilina/ clavulánico + ozonoterapia (AMC/O3 ) y sépticas + ozonoterapia (I/O3 ). (O3 /O2 ) se administró por vía rectal a concentraciones crecientes de O3 los 10 días previos a la instauración del modelo de sepsis (inyección intraperitoneal de material fecal) o de la administración de solución salina, en las ratas control. Posteriormente (postinoculación) se continuó administrando (O3 /O2 ), 3 días por semana. Registramos los signos vitales y realizamos estudios microbiológicos, histopatológicos y hematológicos. RESULTADOS: El número de supervivientes/total fue mayor en AMC (8/8) que en AMC/O3 (4/8), p = 0,077. El porcentaje de supervivientes con neumonía fue mayor en AMC/O3 que en AMC (100% vs 37,5%). Entre los fallecidos, AMC/O3 tenía un porcentaje mayor de lesiones: cardiacas, hemorragias pulmonares y pleuritis (100%) y serositis/peritonitis (75%). A partir de la sangre y/o líquido peritoneal de los grupos infectados se aislaron exclusivamente Escherichia coli (2 biotipos diferentes). Observamos una disminución significativa en el porcentaje de neutrófilos en banda en las supervivientes pertenecientes a AMC/O3 vs AMC (p < 0,05). CONCLUSIÓN: El tratamiento rectal previo con (O3 /O2 ) agrava el estado clínico en ratas sépticas tratadas con amoxicilina/clavulánico

Gut microbiota, the pharmabiotics they produce and host health.

A healthy gut microbiota plays many crucial functions in the host, being involved in the correct development and functioning of the immune system, assisting in the digestion of certain foods and in the production of health-beneficial bioactive metabolites or 'pharmabiotics'. These include bioactive lipids (including SCFA and conjugated linoleic acid) antimicrobials and exopolysaccharides in addition to nutrients, including vitamins B and K. Alterations in the composition of the gut microbiota and reductions in microbial diversity are highlighted in many disease states, possibly rendering the host susceptible to infection and consequently negatively affecting innate immune function. Evidence is also emerging of microbially produced molecules with neuroactive functions that can have influences across the brain-gut axis. For example, γ-aminobutyric acid, serotonin, catecholamines and acetylcholine may modulate neural signalling within the enteric nervous system, when released in the intestinal lumen and consequently signal brain function and behaviour. Dietary supplementation with probiotics and prebiotics are the most widely used dietary adjuncts to modulate the gut microbiota. Furthermore, evidence is emerging of the interactions between administered microbes and dietary substrates, leading to the production of pharmabiotics, which may directly or indirectly positively influence human health.

Immunomodulators in day to day life: a review.

There are ongoing trends of immunomodulation to combat a vast range of human and animal diseases including the incurable diseases like viral diseases, cancers, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory conditions. Animate as well as non-animate factors, surrounding us are interacting with our immune system. A balanced diet should contain all essential components from energy to vitamin and trace minerals. Each of these constituent has a very special effect on the immune system starting from their development to active role in immunity therefore, the outcome of their deficiency often ends in disease. Edible items which we consume like various vegetables, spices, herbs, fruits etc., are also equally responsible in manipulation of our system either in positive or negative way. Water has biggest share in our body and acts as the main medium to support the activities of the different system of body without exception of immune system. Proper environmental temperature is essential to maintain body's functions and experiments carried out regarding the effect of temperature suggest that extremes of the temperature are often cause immunosuppression directly by acting on the cells of immunity or indirectly through inducing stress and thereby increasing production of catecholamine which are potent anti-immune molecules. Various pathogenic as well as non-pathogenic bacteria cause immune suppression and immune potentiation, respectively. Proper exercise hold a prime position in the healthy life as it supports immunity and keeps disease away. The present review deals with all these immunomodulators having both positive and negative impact on the health status of an individual.

Consensus statements from the Workshop 'Probiotics and Health: Scientific Evidence' / Declaraciones consensuadas del Workshop: “Probióticos y Salud: Evidencia Científica”

This report shows the level of scientific consensus on definition, characteristics and health benefits of probiotics. The content of the report has derived from the scientific meeting: Workshop on Probiotics and Health. Scientific evidence, that congregated several Spanish experts, including gastroenterologists, microbiologists, nutritionists, immunologists and food technologists, among others, who have agreed with the statements shown in this document. Each statement has been sustained with the most relevant scientific aspects that were discussed during the Workshop and the following evaluation of there port by all experts who approved and signed it (AU)

En este documento se muestra una base de consenso entorno a la definición, características y propiedades beneficiosas de los probióticos. El contenido fue generado a partir de la reunión científica Workshop Probióticos y Salud. Evidencia Científica, que agrupó a una variedad de expertos españoles gastroenterólogos, microbiólogos, nutricionistas, inmunólogos y tecnólogos de alimentos, entre otros, que se han adherido en su mayoría a las sentencias que constituyen este documento. Para cada sentencia se establecen las aspectos científicos más relevantes que la respaldan y que son consecuencia del acuerdo al que se ha llegado tras el debate surgido en la reunión y la evaluación posterior del contenido por todos los expertos que han firmado este documento (AU)

Selenium deficiency impairs host innate immune response and induces susceptibility to Listeria monocytogenes infection.

BACKGROUND: Susceptibility or resistance to infection with Listeria monocytogenes correlates with Selenium (Se) deficiency in response to infection. RESULTS: Se-deficient mouse models of listeriosis were used to study the innate immune response during the course of L. monocytogenes infection. Blood samples from mouse models were used for Se status. The concentration of MDA, SOD, GPx and CAT in blood has revealed that lower Se level exist in Se-deficient mice. Intestine, mesenteric lymph node, liver, spleen and brain from each mouse were to study the bacterial burden in organs. The analysis of cell types of spleen from Se-deficient mice revealed that the ability of the host to elicit a rapid recruitment and activation of systemic innate immune response to infection was to a certain extent compromised under conditions of Se deficiency. The cytokine levels in the serum and cytokine expression levels in the livers from Se-deficient mice revealed that the innate immune response of Se-deficient mice was impaired throughout the course of infection. These results suggest that innate immune response is altered by Se deficiency after infection with L. monocytogenes. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, induced susceptibility of host resistance is associated with an impaired innate immune response following infection with L. monocytogenes in C57BL/6 Se-deficient mice.

Probiotic and prebiotic influence beyond the intestinal tract.

Probiotics and prebiotics have long been appreciated for their positive influences on gut health. Research on the mechanisms and effects of these agents shows that their impact reaches beyond the intestine. Effects on the microecology and pathology of the oral cavity, stomach, and vaginal tract have been observed. Likely mediated through immune influences, systemic effects such as reduced severity of colds or other respiratory conditions, impact on allergy incidence and symptoms, and reduced absences from work or daycare have also been noted. These observations, among others, suggest a broader spectrum of influence than commonly considered for these unique substances.

Prophylactic and therapeutic uses of probiotics: a review.

Probiotics, live microbial food supplements that beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance, are quickly gaining interest as functional foods in the current era of self-care and complementary medicine. Microbes have been used for years in food and alcoholic fermentations and relatively recently have undergone scientific scrutiny to examine their purported health benefits. Some of the claims for which research supports a beneficial effect of probiotic consumption include: improving intestinal tract health, enhancing the immune system, synthesizing and enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients, reducing symptoms of lactose intolerance, decreasing the prevalence of allergy in susceptible individuals, and reducing risk of certain cancers. The mechanisms by which probiotics exert their effects are largely unknown, but may involve modifying gut pH, antagonizing pathogens through production of antimicrobial and antibacterial compounds, competing for pathogen binding and receptor sites as well as for available nutrients and growth factors, stimulating immunomodulatory cells, and producing lactase. Selection criteria, efficacy, food and supplement sources and safety issues around probiotics are reviewed. Nutrition professionals can provide a tremendous service by helping clients overcome negative perceptions of all bacteria and, when appropriate, by developing individualized dietary plans to take advantage of the benefits probiotics may confer.

Early nutrition and the development of immune function in the neonate.

The present review will concentrate on the development of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue and the role of early nutrition in promoting immune function. The intestine is the largest immune organ in the body, and as such is the location for the majority of lymphocytes and other immune effector cells. The intestine is exposed to vast quantities of dietary and microbial antigens, and is the most common portal of entry for pathogens, some of which are potentially lethal. The development of normal immune function of the intestine is therefore vital for survival, and is dependent on appropriate antigen exposure and processing, and also an intact intestinal barrier. In early life innate mechanisms of defence are probably more important than active or adaptive mechanisms in responding to an infectious challenge, since the healthy neonate is immunologically naïve (has not seen antigen) and has not acquired immunological memory. During this period maternal colostrum and milk can significantly augment resistance to enteric infections. The mechanisms of enhancing disease resistance are thought to be passive, involving a direct supply of anti-microbial factors, and active, by promoting the development of specific immune function. A tolerance response to dietary and non-invasive antigens is generally induced in the gut. However, it must also be able to mount an adequate immune response to ensure clearance of foreign antigens. It is now recognized that regulation of tolerance and active immune responses is critical to health, and failure to regulate these responses can lead to recurrent infections, inflammatory diseases and allergies. The education of the immune system in early life is thought to be critical in minimizing the occurrence of these immune-based disorders. During this phase of development maternal milk provides signals to the immune system that generate appropriate response and memory. One factor that has been proposed to contribute to the increase in the incidence of immune-based disorders, e.g. atopic diseases in Western countries, is thought to be the increased prevalence of formula-feeding.