Cold-Pressed Pomegranate Seed Oil: Study of Punicic Acid Properties by Coupling of GC/FID and FTIR.

Over the last decades, we have witnessed an increasing interest in food-related products containing vegetable oils. These oils can be obtained either by extraction or by mechanical pressing of different parts of plants (e.g., seeds, fruit, and drupels). Producers of nutraceuticals have ceaselessly searched for unique and effective natural ingredients. The enormous success of argan oil has been followed by discoveries of other interesting vegetable oils (e.g., pomegranate oil) containing several bioactives. This work describes the pomegranate fruit extract and seed oil as a rich source of conjugated linolenic acid as a metabolite of punicic acid (PA), deriving from the omega-5 family (ω-5). Through the chemical characterization of PA, its nutritional and therapeutic properties are highlighted together with the physiological properties that encourage its use in human nutrition. We analyzed the composition of all fatty acids with beneficial properties occurring in pomegranate seed oil using gas chromatography (GC) with flame-ionization detection (FID) analysis combined with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Pomegranate seed oil mainly consists of 9,11,13-octadic-trienoic acid (18:3), corresponding to 73 wt % of the total fatty acids. Nine components were identified by GC in PSO, varying between 0.58 and 73.19 wt %. Using midinfrared (MIR) spectroscopy, we compared the composition of pomegranate seed oil with that of meadowfoam seed oil (MSO), which is also becoming increasingly popular in the food industry due to its high content of long chain fatty acids (C20-22), providing increased oil stability. From the results of FTIR and MIR spectroscopy, we found that punicic acid is unique in PSO (73.19 wt %) but not in MSO.

Mass spectrometry investigation of nucleoside adducts of fatty acid hydroperoxides from oxidation of linolenic and linoleic acids.

The widespread presence of lipid hydroperoxides in foodstuffs and biological samples has aroused great attentions in recent years, while it remains challenging for analysis of the fragility of O - O bond linkage of peroxides. In this present study, we explored the utility of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) for characterization of two fatty acid hydroperoxides from oxidation of linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid, which are the essential fatty acids abundant in many seeds and vegetable oils. The results indicated that in-source fragmentation occurred in the detection of the two fatty acid hydroperoxides in both positive and negative ion modes, which yielded characteristic fragments for ESI-MS analysis. In addition, the genotoxicity of fatty acid hydroperoxides for generation of nucleoside adducts was investigated. It was found that a variety of nucleoside adducts were formed from the reactions of fatty acid hydroperoxides and nucleosides. Furthermore, the decomposition products of the fatty acid hydroperoxides were determined, which provided evidence to elucidate the reaction mechanism for formation of nucleoside adducts.

Effect of Blanching Pomegranate Seeds on Physicochemical Attributes, Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Extracted Oil.

This study investigated the effect of blanching pomegranate seeds (PS) on oil yield, refractive index (RI), yellowness index (YI), conjugated dienes (K232), conjugated trienes (K270), total carotenoid content (TCC), total phenolic compounds (TPC) and DPPH radical scavenging of the extracted oil. Furthermore, phytosterol and fatty acid compositions of the oil extracted under optimum blanching conditions were compared with those from the oil extracted from unblanched PS. Three different blanching temperature levels (80, 90, and 100 °C) were studied at a constant blanching time of 3 min. The blanching time was then increased to 5 min at the established optimum blanching temperature (90 °C). Blanching PS increased oil yield, K232, K270, stigmasterol, punicic acid, TPC and DPPH radical scavenging, whereas YI, ß-sitosterol, palmitic acid and linoleic acid were decreased. The RI, TCC, brassicasterol, stearic acid, oleic acid and arachidic acid of the extracted oil were not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by blanching. Blanching PS at 90 °C for 3 to 5 min was associated with oil yield, TPC and DPPH. Blanching PS at 90 °C for 3 to 5 min will not only increase oil yield but could also improve functional properties such as antioxidant activity, which are desirable in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and food industries.

Folate-Targeted Polyacrylamide/Punicic Acid Nanomicelles for Flutamide Delivery in Prostate Cancer: Characterization, In Vitro Biological Evaluation, and its DFT Study.

BACKGROUND: Targeted nanocarriers can be used for reducing the unwanted side effects of drugs in non-target organs. Punicic acid, the polyunsaturated fatty acid of pomegranate seed oil, has been shown to possess anti-cancer effects on prostate cancer and the study also covers recent patents related to prostate cancer. The objective of the current study was to synthesize a co-polymeric micelle for delivery of Flutamide (FL) in prostate cancer using Polyacrylamide (PAM) and Punicic Acid (PA). METHODS: The co-polymer of PAM and PA was synthesized and conjugated to folic acid. The successful conjugation was studied computationally by the density functional theory method and was confirmed by the FT- IR and 1HNMR. The folate-PAMPA micelles produced by the film casting method were characterized physically. FL was loaded in the nanomicelles and its release test was done at different pH. The Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) was measured by pyrene as a fluorescent probe. Their cellular uptake and cytotoxicity were evaluated on PC3 prostate cancer cells. The molecular geometry and vibrational frequencies of two different possibilities for conjugation were calculated using the B3LYP/6-31G basis set. RESULTS: The CMC of the micelles and their particle size were 79.05 µg/ml and 88 nm, respectively. The resulting nanocarriers of FL showed significantly more cytotoxic effects than the free drug at a concentration of 25 µM. The calculated results showed that the optimized geometries could well reproduce the structural parameters, and the theoretical vibrational frequencies were in good agreement with the experimental values. CONCLUSION: Folate-PAMPA nanomicelles may be promising for the enhancement of FL cytotoxicity and seem to potentiate the effect of chemotherapeutic agents used in prostate cancer treatment.

A novel nanoformulation of α-eleostearic acid restores molecular pathogenesis of hypersensitivity.

AIM: The present work provides first-time empirical and molecular interaction evidence to establish the higher biofunctionality of a therapeutic lipid, α-eleostearic acid (ESA), encapsulated in a novel and thoroughly characterized biocompatible nanoemulsion (NE) system (particle size <200 nm). MATERIALS & METHODS: A novel methodology was employed to fabricate novel formulations of ESA. Molecular biological tools and assays were used to arrive at definite conclusions. RESULTS: The proinflammatory profile was found to be significantly mitigated in the hypersensitized rats administered with the ESA-NE formulation more emphatically as compared with ESA-conventional emulsion in both in vivo and ex vivo models. CONCLUSION: The novel ESA-NE formulation shows a lot of palpable promise for clinical applications.

Punicic acid: A potential compound of pomegranate seed oil in Type 2 diabetes mellitus management.

Diabetes is one of the most prevalent diseases in the worldwide. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), the most common form of the disease, has become a serious threat to public health and is a growing burden on global economies. Due to the unexpected adverse effects of antidiabetic medicines, the use of nutraceuticals as a complementary therapy has drawn extensive attention by investigators. In this issue, a novel nutraceutical, Punicic acid (PA)-the main ingredient of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) that has potential therapeutic effects in T2DM-has been investigated. PA is a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonist, and unlike synthetic ligands, such as thiazolidinediones, it has no side effects. PA exerts antidiabetic effects via various mechanisms, such as reducing inflammatory cytokines, modulating glucose homeostasis, and antioxidant properties. In this review, we discussed the potential therapeutic effects of PSO and PA and represented the related mechanisms involved in the management of T2DM.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Structured Monogalactosyldiacylglycerols Enriched in Pinolenic Acid.

We enzymatically prepared structured monogalactosydiacylglycerols (MGDGs) enriched in pinolenic acid (PLA). PLA-enriched free fatty acids (FFAs) containing ∼86 mol % PLA were produced from an FFA fraction obtained from pine nut oil (PLA content, ∼13 mol %) by urea crystallization. Commercial MGDGs (5 mg) were acidolyzed with PLA-enriched FFAs using four commercial immobilized lipases as biocatalysts. The reaction was performed in acetone (4 mL) in a stirred-batch reactor. Lipozyme RM IM (immobilized Rhizomucor miehei lipase) was the most effective biocatalyst for the reaction. Structured MGDGs containing 42.1 mol % PLA were obtained under optimal reaction conditions: temperature, 25 °C; substrate molar ratio, 1:30 (MGDGs/PLA-enriched FFAs); enzyme loading, 20 wt % of total substrates; and reaction time, 36 h. The structured MGDGs were separated from the reaction products at a purity of 96.6 wt % using silica column chromatography. The structured MGDGs could be possibly used as emulsifiers with appetite-suppression effects.

Regioisomeric distribution of 9- and 13-hydroperoxy linoleic acid in vegetable oils during storage and heating.

BACKGROUND: The oxidative deterioration of vegetable oils is commonly measured by the peroxide value, thereby not considering the contribution of individual lipid hydroperoxide isomers, which might have different bioactive effects. Thus, the formation of 9- and 13-hydroperoxy octadecadienoic acid (9-HpODE and 13- HpODE), was quantified after short-term heating and conditions representative of long-term domestic storage in samples of linoleic acid, canola, sunflower and soybean oil, by means of stable isotope dilution analysis-liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy. RESULTS: Although heating of pure linoleic acid at 180 °C for 30 min led to an almost complete loss of 9-HpODE and 13-HpODE, heating of canola, sunflower and soybean oil resulted in the formation of 5.74 ± 3.32, 2.00 ± 1.09, 16.0 ± 2.44 mmol L-1 13-HpODE and 13.8 ± 8.21, 10.0 ± 6.74 and 45.2 ± 6.23 mmol L-1 9-HpODE. An almost equimolar distribution of the 9- and 13-HpODE was obtained during household-representative storage conditions after 56 days, whereas, under heating conditions, an approximately 2.4-, 2.8- and 5.0-fold (P ≤ 0.001) higher concentration of 9-HpODE than 13-HpODE was detected in canola, soybean and sunflower oil, respectively. CONCLUSION: A temperature-dependent distribution of HpODE regioisomers could be shown in vegetable oils, suggesting their application as markers of lipid oxidation in oils used for short-term heating. © 2017 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Eleostearic phospholipids as probes to evaluate antioxidants efficiency against liposomes oxidation.

Regardless of the applications: therapeutic vehicle or membrane model to mimic complex biological systems; it is of a great importance to develop simplified, reproducible and rapid model assays allowing for a relevant assessment of the liposomal membrane oxidation and therefore antioxidant activity of selected molecules. Here, we describe a new and high-throughput assay that we called "Vesicle Conjugated Autoxidizable Triene (VesiCAT)". It is based on specific UV absorbance spectral properties of a new phospholipid probe, synthesized with natural conjugated eleostearic acid extracted from Tung oil. The VesiCAT assay has been developed with two different radical generators (2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride; AAPH and 2,2'-azobis(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile); AMVN), producing a constant flux of oxidant species, either in membrane or in aqueous phase. This method appears very efficient in assessing the effect of various pure antioxidant molecules in their ability to preserve liposomes from oxidative degradation. In addition, the AAPH- and AMVN-induced oxidations offer the possibility of extracting different but complementary information with respect to the antioxidants efficacy.

Pinolenic Acid in Structured Triacylglycerols Exhibits Superior Intestinal Lymphatic Absorption As Compared to Pinolenic Acid in Natural Pine Nut Oil.

The positional distribution pattern of fatty acids (FAs) in the triacylglycerols (TAGs) affects intestinal absorption of these FAs. The aim of this study was to compare lymphatic absorption of pinolenic acid (PLA) present in structured pinolenic TAG (SPT) where PLA was evenly distributed on the glycerol backbone, with absorption of pine nut oil (PNO) where PLA was predominantly positioned at the sn-3 position. SPT was prepared via the nonspecific lipase-catalyzed esterification of glycerol with free FA obtained from PNO. Lymphatic absorption of PLA from PNO and from SPT was compared in a rat model of lymphatic cannulation. Significantly (P < 0.05) greater amounts of PLA were detected in lymph collected for 8 h from an emulsion containing SPT (28.5 ± 0.7% dose) than from an emulsion containing PNO (26.2 ± 0.6% dose), thereby indicating that PLA present in SPT has a greater capacity for lymphatic absorption than PLA from PNO.

Mulberry fruit prevents LPS-induced NF-κB/pERK/MAPK signals in macrophages and suppresses acute colitis and colorectal tumorigenesis in mice.

Here, we investigated the impact of mulberry fruit (MBF) extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophages, and the therapeutic efficacy of MBF diet in mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute colitis and MUC2(-/-) mice with colorectal cancer. In vitro, LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production was significantly inhibited by MBF extracts via suppressing the expression of proinflammatory molecules, including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-1 beta (IL-ß) and IL-6. Particularly, a dose-dependent inhibition on LPS-induced inflammatory responses was observed following treatment with MBF dichloromethane extract (MBF-DE), in which linoleic acid and ethyl linolenate were identified as two active compounds. Moreover, we elucidated that MBF-DE attenuated LPS-induced inflammatory responses by blocking activation of both NF-κB/p65 and pERK/MAPK pathways. In vivo, DSS-induced acute colitis was significantly ameliorated in MBF-fed mice as gauged by weight loss, colon morphology and histological damage. In addition, MBF-fed MUC2(-/-) mice displayed significant decrease in intestinal tumor and inflammation incidence compared to control diet-fed group. Overall, our results demonstrated that MBF suppressed the development of intestinal inflammation and tumorgenesis both in vitro and in vivo, and supports the potential of MBF as a therapeutic functional food for testing in human clinical trials.

Preparation of highly purified pinolenic acid from pine nut oil using a combination of enzymatic esterification and urea complexation.

Pinolenic acid (PLA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid of plant origin. PLA has been successfully enriched according to a two-step process involving lipase-catalysed esterification and urea complexation. For the first step, the fatty acids present in pine nut oil were selectively esterified with lauryl alcohol using Candida rugosa lipase. Under the optimum conditions of 0.1% enzyme loading, 10% additional water, and 15 °C, PLA was enriched up to 43 mol% from an initial value of 13 mol% in the pine nut oil. For the second step, the PLA-enriched fraction from the first step was subjected to a urea complexation process. In this way, PLA enrichments with purities greater than 95 mol% were obtained at urea to fatty acid ratios greater than 3:1 (wt/wt), and 100% pure PLA was produced at a urea to fatty acid ratio of 5:1 with an 8.7 mol% yield.

Development of a high-throughput assay for measuring phospholipase A activity using synthetic 1,2-α-eleostearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine coated on microtiter plates.

To date, several sensitive methods, based on radiolabeled elements or sterically hindered fluorochrome groups, are usually employed to screen phospholipase A (PLA) activities. With the aim of developing a convenient, specific, sensitive, and continuous new ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometric assay for PLA, we have synthesized a specific glycerophosphatidylcholine (PC) esterified at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions, with α-eleostearic acid (9Z, 11E, 13E-octadecatrienoic acid) purified from Aleurites fordii seed oil. The conjugated triene present in α-eleostearic acid constitutes an intrinsic chromophore and, consequently, confers the strong UV absorption properties of this free fatty acid as well as of the glycerophospholipids harboring it. This coated PC film cannot be desorbed by the various buffers used during PLA assays. Following the action of PLA at the oil-water interface, α-eleostearic acid is freed and desorbed from the film and then solubilized with ß-cyclodextrin. The UV absorbance of the α-eleostearic acid is considerably enhanced due to the transformation from an adsorbed to a water-soluble state. The PLA activity can be measured continuously by recording the variations with time of the UV absorption spectra. The rate of lipolysis was monitored by measuring the increase of absorption at 272 nm, which was found to be linear with time and proportional to the amount of added PLA. This continuous high-throughput PLA assay could be used to screen new PLA and/or PLA inhibitors present in various biological samples.

Epoxy monomers derived from tung oil fatty acids and its regulable thermosets cured in two synergistic ways.

A novel biobased epoxy monomer with conjugated double bonds, glycidyl ester of eleostearic acid (GEEA) was synthesized from tung oil fatty acids and characterized by (1)H and (13)C NMR. Differential scanning calorimeter analysis (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were utilized to investigate the curing process of GEEA with dienophiles and anhydrides. DSC indicated that GEEA could cross-link with both dienophiles and anhydrides through Diels-Alder reaction and epoxy/anhydride ring-opening reaction. Furthermore, Diels-Alder cross-link was much more active than the ring-opening of epoxy and anhydride in the curing process. FT-IR also revealed that GEEA successively reacted with dienophiles and anhydrides in both cross-linking methods. Dynamic mechanical analysis and mechanical tensile testing were used to study the thermal and mechanical properties of GEEA cured by maleic anhydride, nadic methyl anhydride and 1,1'-(methylenedi-4,1-phenylene)bismaleimide. Due to the independence between the curing agents, dienophile and anhydride, a series of thermosetting polymers with various properties could be obtained by adjusting the composition of these two curing agents.

Induction of apoptotic cell death in HL-60 cells by jacaranda seed oil derived fatty acids.

Various fatty acids are attracting considerable interest for their anticancer effects. Among them, fatty acids containing conjugated double bonds show one of the most potent cytotoxic effects on cancer cells. Here, we focused on the cancer cell killing activity of jacaranda seed oil. The seed oil of jacaranda harvested from Miyazaki in Japan contained 30.9% cis-8, trans-10, cis-12 octadecatrienoic acid, called jacaric acid (JA). Fatty acid prepared from this oil (JFA) and JA strongly induced cell death in human leukemia HL-60 cells. On the other hand, linoleic acid and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (<10 µM) did not affect cell proliferation and viability. An increase in the sub-G1 population and internucleosomal fragmentation of DNA was observed in JA- and JFA-treated cells, indicating induction of apoptotic cell death. Finally, the cytotoxic effects of JA and JFA were completely abolished by α-tocopherol. Taken together, these data suggest that jacaranda seed oil has potent apoptotic activity in HL-60 cells through induction of oxidative stress.

Synthesis of phytosteryl ester containing pinolenic acid in a solvent-free system using immobilized Candida rugosa lipase.

Phytosteryl ester synthesized with pinolenic acid (PLA) from pine nut oil is expected to have features of both phytosterol and PLA. In this study, lipase from Candida rugosa (CRL) was immobilized and then used to optimize conditions for synthesis of phytosteryl ester containing PLA. Lewatit VP OC 1600, a macroporous hydrophobic resin, was selected as the best carrier, and the optimum condition for the immobilization of CRL was established. With immobilized CRL prepared, synthesis of phytosteryl ester with fatty acid from pine nut oil was carried out. Parameters investigated were temperature, molar ratio (phytosterol to fatty acid), enzyme loading, and vacuum. Optimum conditions for synthesis of phytosteryl ester were a temperature of 60 °C, molar ratio of 1:4, enzyme loading of 10% (based on the total weight of the substrate), and pressure of 80 kPa. The maximum conversion of phytosteryl ester was ca. 93 mol % at the optimum condition.

Development of a high-throughput assay for measuring lipase activity using natural triacylglycerols coated on microtiter plates.

We have designed a convenient, specific, sensitive and continuous lipase assay based on the use of natural triacylglycerols (TAGs) from the Aleurites fordii seed oil which contains α-eleostearic acid (9,11,13,cis,trans,trans-octadecatrienoic acid) and which was coated in the wells of microtiter plates. The coated TAG film cannot be desorbed by the various buffers used during the lipase assay. Upon lipase action, α-eleostearic acid is liberated and desorbed from the interface and then solubilized into the micellar phase. Consequently, the UV absorbance of the α-eleostearic acid is considerably enhanced due to the transformation from an adsorbed to a water soluble state. The lipase activity can be measured continuously by recording the variations with time of the UV absorption spectra. The rate of lipolysis was monitored by measuring the increase of OD at 272 nm, which was found to be linear with time and directly proportional to the amount of added lipase. This microtiter plate lipase assay, based on coated TAGs, presents various advantages as compared to the classical systems: (i) coated TAGs on the microtiter plates could be stored for a long-time at 4 °C, (ii) higher sensitivity in lipase detection, (iii) good reproducibility, and (iv) increase of signal to noise ratio due to high UV absorption after transfer of α-eleostearic acid from an adsorbed to a soluble state. Low concentrations, down to 1 pg mL(-1) of pure Thermomyces lanuginosus or human pancreatic lipase, could be detected under standard assay conditions. The detection sensitivity of this coated method is around 1000 times higher as compared to those obtained with the classical emulsified systems. This continuous high throughput lipase assay could be used to screen new lipases and/or lipase inhibitors present in various biological samples.

Effect of the dietary supplementation of essential oils from rosemary and artemisia on muscle fatty acids and volatile compound profiles in Barbarine lambs.

Eighteen Barbarine lambs (3 months of age), were assigned for 95 days to 3 treatments: six lambs were fed a barley-based concentrate plus oat hay ad libitum (control group, C); other lambs received the control diet plus essential oil (400 ppm DM) either of Rosmarinus officinalis (R400 group; n=6) or of Artemisia herba alba (A400 group; n=6). At slaughter the muscle longissimus dorsi was sampled and subjected to fatty acid and volatile organic compounds (VOC) analyses. The A400 lambs presented a greater amount of vaccenic, rumenic and linolenic acids and of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in meat than the C and R400 animals. Essential oils supplementation did not affect meat VOC profile though the sesquiterpenes copaene and ß-caryophyllene were detected only in the meat of R400 and A400 lambs. It is concluded that the supplementation of rosemary or artemisia essential oils does not produce detrimental effects on lamb meat VOC profile. The supplementation of artemisia can improve meat healthy properties.

Jacaric acid and its octadecatrienoic acid geoisomers induce apoptosis selectively in cancerous human prostate cells: a mechanistic and 3-D structure-activity study.

Plant-derived non-essential fatty acids are important dietary nutrients, and some are purported to have chemopreventive properties against various cancers, including that of the prostate. In this study, we determined the ability of seven dietary C-18 fatty acids to cause cytotoxicity and induce apoptosis in various types of human prostate cancer cells. These fatty acids included jacaric and punicic acid found in jacaranda and pomegranate seed oil, respectively, three octadecatrienoic geometric isomers (alpha- and beta-calendic and catalpic acid) and two mono-unsaturated C-18 fatty acids (trans- and cis-vaccenic acid). Jacaric acid and four of its octadecatrienoic geoisomers selectively induced apoptosis in hormone-dependent (LNCaP) and -independent (PC-3) human prostate cancer cells, whilst not affecting the viability of normal human prostate epithelial cells (RWPE-1). Jacaric acid induced concentration- and time-depedent LNCaP cell death through activation of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways resulting in cleavage of PARP-1, modulation of pro- and antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family of proteins and increased cleavage of caspase-3, -8 and -9. Moreover, activation of a cell death-inducing signalling cascade involving death receptor 5 was observed. Jacaric acid induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells by activation of the intrinsic pathway only. The spatial conformation cis, trans, cis of jacaric and punicic acid was shown to play a key role in the increased potency and efficacy of these two fatty acids in comparison to the five other C-18 fatty acids tested. Three-dimensional conformational analysis using the PubChem Database (http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) showed that the cytotoxic potency of the C-18 fatty acids was related to their degree of conformational similarity to our cytotoxic reference compound, punicic acid, based on optimized shape (ST) and feature (CT) similarity scores, with jacaric acid being most 'biosimilar' (ST(ST-opt)=0.81; CT(CT-opt)=0.45). This 3-D analysis of structural similarity enabled us to rank geoisomeric fatty acids according to cytotoxic potency, whereas a 2-D positional assessment of cis/trans structure did not. Our findings provide mechanistic evidence that nutrition-derived non-essential fatty acids have chemopreventive biological activities and Exhibit 3-D structure-activity relationships that could be exploited to develop new strategies for the prevention or treatment of prostate cancer regardless of hormone dependency.

Characterisation of a highly saturated Irvingia gabonensis seed kernel oil with unusual linolenic acid content.

The search for new sources of oil with improved characteristics has focused our attention on the characterisation of Irvingia gabonensis seed kernel oil. Physicochemical analysis have revealed the following assets: refractive index (1.42 ± 0.00), free fatty acids (2.3 ± 0.8%), peroxide value (3.33 ± 0.57 meq O(2)/kg), iodine value (32.43 ± 1.22 g I(2)/100 g), saponification value (233.75 ± 2.60 mg KOH/g), unsaponifiable matter (1.5 ± 0.02%), carotenoids (63 ± 0.01 mg ß-carotene/100 g) and phospholipids (2.1 ± 0.01%). Absorbance of this oil decreased abruptly in the range of UV-B and UV-A wavelengths. Gas chromatography analysis showed that the major fatty acids were saturated, being mainly composed of lauric (C12:0, 39.35 ± 0.01%) and myristic acids (C14:0, 20.54 ± 0.01%). Nevertheless, an unusually high amount (6.44 ± 0.02%) of linolenic acid was also noted. Mass spectrometer analysis of volatile compounds highlighted the presence of various aromatic and aliphatic organic compounds. I. gabonensis seed kernel oil also showed oxidative stability at 60 °C after 12 days of storage with maximum peroxide value of 34.66 meq O(2)/kg. In view of these interesting characteristics, I. gabonensis seed kernel could be used as an alternative source of oil for lipid industries.