Hypothalamic volume in pedophilia with or without child sexual offense.

The hypothalamus regulates sexual behavior and is simultaneously associated with aggression and violence. Consequently, this brain region is relevant in research of pedophilia and child sexual offenses (CSO). The distinction between these two phenomena is of great importance and was the object of consideration of this study. We analyzed exclusively men, including 73 pedophilic offenders who committed CSO, an equal number of people with pedophilia but without such offenses, and 133 non-pedophilic, non-offending subjects who formed the control group. All data were collected in a multicenter in vivo study and analyzed using a semi-automated segmentation algorithm for 3-Tesla magnetic resonance images. Men with pedophilia who committed CSO on average had a 47 mm3 smaller hypothalamus per side than people without committed CSO. This effect was driven by both the group of non-offending people with pedophilia and the control group. By contrast, the exploratory comparison of pedophilic persons without CSO with the control group showed no significant difference. The present study demonstrates a deviant hypothalamic structure as a neurobiological correlate of CSO in pedophiles, but not in people with pedophilia who have not committed CSO. Thus, it strengthens the argument to distinguish between sexual offending and paraphilic sexual preferences.

Atendimento psicossocial à mulher que comete ofensa sexual / Psychosocial attention for women that commit sexual offenses / Atención psicosocial para mujeres que cometen delitos sexuales

Objetivamos apresentar uma proposta de atendimento psicossocial grupal oferecida para mulheres adultas que cometeram ofensa sexual, cuidadoras e mães. A experiência está sendo desenvolvida no Distrito Federal, Brasil, com pessoas do gênero feminino provenientes de encaminhamento judicial. Carece que os profissionais das áreas da justiça, saúde, serviço social e psicologia avancem no estudo e na compreensão desta temática, de modo a pensarem a atuação e o apoio terapêutico a essas mulheres. O modo de atendimento é focal e breve, com ênfase na criação de um ambiente lúdico como facilitador das interações grupais e da discussão sobre os temas: identidade; confiança nas relações afetivas e sociais; vivência pessoal com violência física e sexual; configuração de gênero; e expressão da sexualidade e futuro. A abordagem individual também se baseia no enfoque dos temas mencionados. O oferecimento de ajuda à mulher cuidadora ou à mãe tem participação ativa na interrupção do circuito abusivo sexual, pois essa violência é extremamente ocultada, ocasionando uma prolongada vulnerabilidade para as vítimas. Ressalta-se o valor do texto indicando a descrição de ação voltada para uma população permanentemente não estudada e evitada em seu reconhecimento. Os limites desta proposta encontram-se na falta de outras iniciativas que possibilitem uma discussão sobre essa experiência.(AU)

We aim to present a proposal of a group psychosocial intervention offered for adult female sexual offenders, caregivers, and mothers. The intervention is being developed at Federal District, Brazil, with female people coming from judicial referrals. Professionals in the areas of justice, health, social work, and psychology need to advance in the study and understanding this theme to think about action and therapeutic support for these women. The intervention is a focal and brief approach, with emphasis on the creation of a ludic environment as a facilitator of group interactions and discussion about the themes: identity; trust in affective and social relationships; personal experience with physical and sexual violence; gender configuration; and sexuality expression and future. The individual approach is also based on focusing on these themes. The offering of help to the female caregiver or the mother has an active participation in the interruption of the sexual offense circuit, since this violence is extremely hidden, bringing a prolonged condition of vulnerability to the victims. The value of this text is highlighted indicating the description of an action directed to a population that is permanently not studied and whose recognition is avoided. The limits of this proposal are found in the absence of other initiatives that would allow a discussion about this experience.(AU)

Este texto presenta una propuesta de atención psicosocial grupal destinada a mujeres adultas que han cometido delito sexual, a cuidadoras y madres. La intervención se está desarrollando en el Distrito Federal (Brasil), con personas del género femenino provenientes de remisiones judiciales. Es necesario que los profesionales de las áreas de justicia, salud, trabajo social y psicología avancen en el estudio y comprensión de esta temática para pensar en el desempeño y apoyo terapéutico de estas mujeres. El servicio es enfocado y breve, con énfasis en la creación de un ambiente lúdico como facilitador de interacciones grupales y discusión sobre los temas: identidad; confianza en las relaciones afectivas y sociales; experiencia personal con violencia física y sexual; configuración de género; y expresión de la sexualidad y el futuro. El enfoque individual también se centra en estos temas. La oferta de ayuda a la mujer cuidadora o a la madre es importante para la interrupción del circuito de abuso sexual, ya que esta violencia es extremadamente oculta y provoca una vulnerabilidad prolongada a las víctimas. Se destaca el valor del texto con la descripción de la acción dirigida a una población que no es objeto de estudios ni reconocida. Los límites de esta propuesta se encuentran en la ausencia de otras iniciativas que permitan un debate sobre esta experiencia.(AU)

Um capítulo esquecido na história da psicologia? sexualidades desviantes, psicopatologia e normalidade / A forgotten chapter in the history of psychology? deviant sexualities, psychopathology, and normality / ¿Un capítulo olvidado en la historia de la psicología? sexualidades desviadas, psicopatología y normalidad

Este artigo tem como objetivo produzir uma análise histórica sobre as intersecções entre Psicologia e sexualidade desviantes da norma no Brasil, de fins do século XIX a meados da década de 1980. Esta temporalidade foi escolhida por abarcar o surgimento das pesquisas científicas sobre sexualidade e desvios sexuais, a consolidação dos estudos psicológicos sobre a temática e o processo mais recente de despatologização da homossexualidade. Em termos teóricos e metodológicos, foram adotados os pressupostos da História Social da Psicologia e da historiografia das homossexualidades no Brasil. Desse modo, buscou-se compreender como as ideias, concepções e práticas psicológicas foram mudando ao longo do tempo, em conexão com as transformações socioculturais e políticas que ocorreram durante o século XX. Para isto, foram utilizadas fontes primárias e secundárias de pesquisa com vistas à produção de interpretações sobre as conexões entre as ideias, os atores e os eventos narrados. Argumenta-se, ao longo do artigo, que as ideias e práticas psicológicas estão intrinsecamente conectadas aos contextos socioculturais e políticos de seu tempo, sendo os movimentos dinâmicos e os conflitos presentes nesses contextos fatores determinantes para a sua constituição.(AU)

This article aims to produce a historical analysis of the intersections between Psychology and sexualities that deviate from the norm in Brazil, from the late 19th century to the mid-1980s. This period was chosen because it encompasses the emergence of scientific research on sexuality and sexual deviations, the consolidation of psychological studies on the subject and the most recent process of de-pathologization of homosexuality. Theoretically and methodologically, the assumptions of the Social History of Psychology and the historiography of homosexualities in Brazil were adopted. Therefore, we sought to understand how psychological ideas, conceptions and practices have changed over time, in connection with the sociocultural and political transformations that occurred throughout the 20th century. For this, primary and secondary sources of research were used to produce interpretations about the connections between the ideas, the actors and the narrated events. It is argued, throughout the article, that the psychological ideas and practices are intrinsically connected to the sociocultural and political contexts of their time, being the dynamic movements and conflicts present in these contexts determining factors for their constitution.(AU)

Este artículo tiene como objetivo realizar un análisis histórico de las intersecciones entre la Psicología y las sexualidades desviadas de la norma en Brasil desde finales del siglo XIX hasta mediados de la década de 1980. Esta temporalidad fue elegida por abarcar el surgimiento de las investigaciones científicas sobre sexualidad y desvíos sexuales, la consolidación de los estudios psicológicos sobre el tema y el más reciente proceso de despatologización de la homosexualidad. En el marco teórico y metodológico, se adoptaron los presupuestos de la Historia Social de la Psicología y de la historiografía de las homosexualidades en Brasil. De esta manera, se pretende comprender cómo las ideas, concepciones y prácticas psicológicas han cambiado a lo largo del tiempo, en conexión con las transformaciones socioculturales y políticas ocurridas durante el siglo XX. Para ello, se utilizaron las fuentes de investigación primarias y secundarias con miras a generar interpretaciones sobre las conexiones entre las ideas, los actores y los eventos narrados. Se argumenta, a lo largo de este artículo, que las ideas y las prácticas psicológicas están intrínsecamente conectadas a los contextos socioculturales y políticos de su tiempo, y los movimientos dinámicos y los conflictos presentes en estos contextos fueron los factores determinantes para su constitución.(AU)

State of the Art Treatment Options for Actual and Potential Sexual Offenders and New Prevention Strategies.

Sexual violence is a significant and devastating issue for men and women throughout the world. Its consequences are not only disastrous for victims of sexual violence but are also extremely costly (estimated cost of $41,000 per rape) for society. Successful treatment of sexual offenders is therefore an important goal for society as well as for victims and offenders themselves. Over the years, multiple treatment approaches for sex offenders have been developed. Treatment programs range from the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model, which focuses on providing tailored treatment for high-risk and low-risk offenders, to psychodynamic models. This article presents an overview for clinicians of state-of-the-art offender treatment, describing the most common treatment approaches, in particular the RNR model, cognitive-behavioral programs (relapse prevention programs, sexual offender treatment programs), psychodynamic approaches (transference-focused psychotherapy, mentalization-based therapy), the Good Lives Model, as well as pharmacological options. In addition, it provides an evaluation of the various treatment programs. However, given the fact that most acts of sexual violence will never be reported to the police, the question arises if treating convicted perpetrators is enough. Do we need rather-in terms of preventive work-a program for potential sexual offenders and men with delinquent sexual fantasies? Given the prevalence of sexual violence and its impact on victims, society, and the medical community, it would be remiss not to try to reach potential/unconvicted perpetrators. This article offers novel ideas and a project the goal of which is to prevent sexual offenses against women by introducing the "I CAN CHANGE" program from Hannover Medical School.

Preventing Sexual Abuse: Perspectives of Minor-Attracted Persons About Seeking Help.

The primary aim of this exploratory research was to gain information from minor-attracted persons (MAPs) about their (a) formal and informal experiences with help-seeking for minor attraction, (b) perceived barriers to seeking help for concerns about minor attraction, and (c) treatment priorities as identified by consumers of these services. A nonrandom, purposive sample of MAPs (n = 293, 154 completed all questions) was recruited via an online survey. Results show that 75% of participants did seek formal help from a professional; however, just less than half of them found the experience to be helpful. Characteristics of helpful therapeutic encounters included nonjudgmental attitudes, knowledge about minor attraction, and viewing clients in a person-centered and holistic way. Barriers to help seeking included uncertainty about confidentiality, fear of negative reaction or judgment, difficulties finding a therapist knowledgeable about MAPs, and financial constraints. Understanding or reducing attraction to minors were common treatment goals, but participants also prioritized addressing general mental health and well-being related to depression, anxiety, loneliness, and low self-esteem. Implications for effective and ethical counseling and preventive interventions for MAPs are discussed.

Estrategias de persuasión percibidas por adolescentes en situaciones de engaño pederasta por Internet (online grooming) / Persuasion strategies perceived by adolescents in situations of online grooming

El engaño pederasta por Internet (online grooming) es el proceso por el cual un adulto consigue victimizar sexualmente a un menor valiéndose de los medios que ofrece Internet. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la prevalencia de las estrategias de persuasión e influencia utilizadas por adultos para manipular e involucrar a menores en el engaño pederasta por Internet, así como las diferencias atendiendo al sexo. Inicialmente, 2731 adolescentes de entre 12 y 15 años (50,6% chicas) completaron un cuestionario sobre solicitudes e interacciones sexuales con adultos y otro sobre persuasión basado en los principios de influencia de Cialdini (2001). 408 Menores (14,9%) se vieron implicados en el engaño pederasta durante el último año (61,3% mujeres; edad media= 14,23; DT= 0,92). Se encontró una utilización altamente frecuente de los principios de influencia, siendo el más experimentado el principio de simpatía (hasta un 50,9%). Las chicas experimentaron más frecuentemente todos los principios excepto el de autoridad, en el que no hubo diferencias. Estos hallazgos proporcionan información útil para entender y prevenir la victimización sexual de los menores en Internet

Online grooming is the process by which an adult sexually victimizes a minor using the means offered by the Internet. The objective of this study was to analyze the prevalence of persuasion and influence strategies used by aggressors to manipulate and involve minors in online grooming, as well as gender differences. The initial sample consisted of 2731 adolescents between 12 and 15 years of age (50.6% girls) who completed a questionnaire on sexual solicitations and interactions with adults and another on persuasion based on the principles of influence of Cialdini (2001). 408 Minors (14.9%) were involved in grooming during the previous year (61.3% girls, mean age= 14.23, DT= 0.92). It was found a highly frequent use of the principles of influence, being the principle of sympathy the most experienced (up to 50.9%). Girls experienced more frequently all the principles of influence except the principle of authority, in which there were no gender differences. These findings provide useful information for understanding and preventing sexual victimization of minors on the Internet

Increasing Valid Profiles in Phallometric Assessment of Sex Offenders with Child Victims: Combining the Strengths of Audio Stimuli and Synthetic Characters.

Penile plethysmography (PPG) is a measure of sexual interests that relies heavily on the stimuli it uses to generate valid results. Ethical considerations surrounding the use of real images in PPG have further limited the content admissible for these stimuli. To palliate this limitation, the current study aimed to combine audio and visual stimuli by incorporating computer-generated characters to create new stimuli capable of accurately classifying sex offenders with child victims, while also increasing the number of valid profiles. Three modalities (audio, visual, and audiovisual) were compared using two groups (15 sex offenders with child victims and 15 non-offenders). Both the new visual and audiovisual stimuli resulted in a 13% increase in the number of valid profiles at 2.5 mm, when compared to the standard audio stimuli. Furthermore, the new audiovisual stimuli generated a 34% increase in penile responses. All three modalities were able to discriminate between the two groups by their responses to the adult and child stimuli. Lastly, sexual interest indices for all three modalities could accurately classify participants in their appropriate groups, as demonstrated by ROC curve analysis (i.e., audio AUC = .81, 95% CI [.60, 1.00]; visual AUC = .84, 95% CI [.66, 1.00], and audiovisual AUC = .83, 95% CI [.63, 1.00]). Results suggest that computer-generated characters allow accurate discrimination of sex offenders with child victims and can be added to already validated stimuli to increase the number of valid profiles. The implications of audiovisual stimuli using computer-generated characters and their possible use in PPG evaluations are also discussed.

Using a Facebook profile in determining the motive of homicide.

Ritual homicides may be affective (emotional), but usually they are premediated, instrumental, or predatory. In the case under review, the Facebook profile of the assailant helped to determine the motive of the homicide, which seemed to be ritualistic in nature. Therein, a 56-year-old male sustained 48 stab wounds and other knife injuries. On the wall in a room above the body, a pentagram was drawn with the victim's blood, followed by a few words which can be associated with a "Satanic" ritual. Searching through the Facebook profile of the culprit, Satanism as a leading motive of the homicide was eventually excluded. The most interesting point of this case was the evaluation of a sentence used as a Facebook status, which greatly contributed to confirm the paedophilic nature of the murder.

Quando o lobo e o cordeiro perdem a pele: a psicanálise na escuta da pedofilia / When the wolf and the lamb take off their skin: the psychoanalysis listening to pedophilia

Este artigo aborda a temática da pedofilia à luz da psicanálise, tendo como fonte de diálogo os filmes: O Lenhador )The Woodsman) e Mistérios da Carne )Mysterious Skin), lançados em 2004. O primeiro enfoca o distúrbio sexual parafílico da pedofilia sob a ótica do agressor, enquanto o segundo privilegia a narrativa daqueles que sofreram abuso sexual na infância, cujas consequências provocam, nas vítimas do lobo, diferentes sequelas na psique e no comportamento, deixando marcas indeléveis na alma

Real-time functional magnetic imaging-brain-computer interface and virtual reality promising tools for the treatment of pedophilia.

This chapter proposes a prospective view on using a real-time functional magnetic imaging (rt-fMRI) brain-computer interface (BCI) application as a new treatment for pedophilia. Neurofeedback mediated by interactive virtual stimuli is presented as the key process in this new BCI application. Results on the diagnostic discriminant power of virtual characters depicting sexual stimuli relevant to pedophilia are given. Finally, practical and ethical implications are briefly addressed.

Pedofilia: análise contra a castração química de pedófilos / Pedophilia: analysis against pedophilic chemical castration

Objetivos: discorrer os principais motivos em ser contra a castração de pedófilos. Metodologia: estudo de revisão deliteratura, com coleta de dados por meio da WEB da National Library of Medicine (PubMed), do site da Biblioteca Virtualem Saúde (BVS), utilizando os seguintes descritores: pedofilia, transtorno, castração e tratamento. Resultados: baseandoseno fato que a pedofilia independe do ato sexual propriamente dito, para se caracterizar, e que é classificada comotranstorno de personalidade e comportamento de preferência sexual, em adulto, é que fundamenta a defesa da tese deque a castração não é solução para este problema, tão pouco melhor escolha, pois, mesmo com tal procedimento, oindivíduo mantém sua personalidade de pedófilo, sendo viável ao profissional de saúde tratar de seres patológicos e nãoapenas do que o afeta, pois um dos preceitos do cuidar é atender cada cliente de maneira holística e humanizada.Conclusão: não é com um método centralizado apenas no biológico que se resolve um problema de origempsicossomática, entretanto, por ser reconhecido mundialmente como um distúrbio, é necessário o cuidar continuado, umavez que não existe ex-pedófilo.

Restorative mediation: the application of restorative justice practice and philosophy to clergy sexual abuse cases.

This article will present the restorative justice model and examine how the restorative justice philosophy and process can be applied to clergy-perpetrated sexual abuse and religious sexual misconduct to resolve legal claims and allow the process of healing to begin. Restorative justice is a holistic approach to criminal, civil, and church law violations, allowing all aspects of an offense to be addressed in one process. Unlike retributive justice prevalent in the traditional legal system, restorative justice seeks to make things right while focusing on healing for the victim-survivor and offender and accountability by the church representatives.

Brain pathology in pedophilic offenders: evidence of volume reduction in the right amygdala and related diencephalic structures.

CONTEXT: Pedophilic crime causes considerable public concern, but no causative factor of pedophilia has yet been pinpointed. In the past, etiological theories postulated a major impact of the environment, but recent studies increasingly emphasize the role of neurobiological factors, as well. However, the role of alterations in brain structures that are crucial in the development of sexual behavior has not yet been systematically studied in pedophilic subjects. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether pedophilic perpetrators show structural neuronal deficits in brain regions that are critical for sexual behavior and how these deficits relate to criminological characteristics. DESIGN: Amygdalar volume and gray matter of related structures that are critical for sexual development were compared in 15 nonviolent male pedophilic perpetrators (forensic inpatients) and 15 controls using complementary morphometric analyses (voxel-based morphometry and volumetry). Psychosocial adjustment and sexual offenses were also assessed. RESULTS: Pedophilic perpetrators showed a significant decrease of right amygdalar volume, compared with healthy controls (P = .001). We observed reduced gray matter in the right amygdala, hypothalamus (bilaterally), septal regions, substantia innominata, and bed nucleus of the striae terminalis. In 8 of the 15 perpetrators, enlargement of the anterior temporal horn of the right lateral ventricle that adjoins the amygdala could be recognized by routine qualitative clinical assessment. Smaller right amygdalar volumes were correlated with the propensity to commit uniform pedophilic sexual offenses exclusively (P = .006) but not with age (P = .89). CONCLUSIONS: Pedophilic perpetrators show structural impairments of brain regions critical for sexual development. These impairments are not related to age, and their extent predicts how focused the scope of sexual offenses is on uniform pedophilic activity. Subtle defects of the right amygdala and closely related structures might be implicated in the pathogenesis of pedophilia and might possibly reflect developmental disturbances or environmental insults at critical periods.

Pedophilia is linked to reduced activation in hypothalamus and lateral prefrontal cortex during visual erotic stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Although pedophilia is of high public concern, little is known about underlying neural mechanisms. Although pedophilic patients are sexually attracted to prepubescent children, they show no sexual interest toward adults. This study aimed to investigate the neural correlates of deficits of sexual and emotional arousal in pedophiles. METHODS: Thirteen pedophilic patients and 14 healthy control subjects were tested for differential neural activity during visual stimulation with emotional and erotic pictures with functional magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: Regions showing differential activations during the erotic condition comprised the hypothalamus, the periaqueductal gray, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the latter correlating with a clinical measure. Alterations of emotional processing concerned the amygdala-hippocampus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. CONCLUSIONS: Hypothesized regions relevant for processing of erotic stimuli in healthy individuals showed reduced activations during visual erotic stimulation in pedophilic patients. This suggests an impaired recruitment of key structures that might contribute to an altered sexual interest of these patients toward adults.

Pedophilia: neuropsychological evidence encouraging a brain network perspective.

Although the vast majority of current pathogenetic theories support a neurobiological understanding of psychiatric disorders, the brain functional correlates of pedophilia are largely unknown. Based on prior behavior genetics research on human sexual orientation and phenomenology as well as the phenotypical intersection of pedophilia with other psychiatric spectrum disorders, we hypothesize the involvement of striato-thalamo-cortical processing loops in the formation of pedophilic urges and behaviors. Data from a current neuropsychological pilot study in four pedophiles encourage our brain functional perspective. As deduced from the network model, all four patients exhibited pronounced and circumscribed deficits in cognitive domains mediated by striato-thalamically controlled areas of the frontal cortex. All patients were especially impaired in neuropsychological functions associated with the prefrontal and motor processing loops (e.g., response inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility), with a performance level located up to five standard deviations below the normative data. Contrary to this, neuropsychological performances in cognitive domains without a comparable high frontal loading were in all participants unobtrusive. In future, studying gene by environment interactions in combination with functional neuroimaging and neuropsychological assessment is promising to elucidate the pathophysiological relationship of psychiatric disorders that are characterized by inadequate urges and poor behavioral inhibition.

Detecting anomalous sexual interests in juvenile sex offenders.

Phallometric studies suggest that some adolescent sex offenders exhibit anomalous sexual interests. However, there have been ethical and practical objections to the phallometric testing of adolescents. Alternative measures may be needed if we are to understand the role of anomalous sexual interests in adolescent sexual offending. The Screening Scale for Pedophilic Interests (SSPI) was designed as a brief measure of pedophilic interests based on sexual offense history variables: any male victims, more than one victim, any victims under age 12, and any unrelated victims. Score on the SSPI is significantly and positively correlated with phallometrically measured pedophilic interests among adult offenders against children. In this study, the SSPI was scored in three samples of adolescent sex offenders who underwent phallometric testing for pedophilic interests. Scores on the SSPI were positively correlated with a phallometric index of relative sexual arousal to children in all three samples. This relationship was strongest using visual stimuli. The positive relationship between SSPI scores and pedophilic responding held up despite the use of different penile measures, stimulus sets, procedures, and scoring methods. The usefulness of the SSPI as a proxy measure among adolescents is discussed.

Verbascum thapsus "quand le verbe claironne" / Verbascum thapsus "when the verb annunciates"

Verbascum thapsus, le bouillon blanc, est une plante poussant dans le lieux incultes de toute l'Europe. On l'appelle aussi Molène ou herbe de Saint-Fiacre. Elle était connue des... (AU)

The treatment of incest offenders--a hypnotic approach: a brief communication.

Incest has become more prominent in public awareness over the past 15 years. The major focus of this interest has been on the incest survivor. The incest offender has received less attention. A hypnotic approach to treating incest offenders is outlined that involves a seven-stage approach. A case example is presented and future research directions suggested.

Sexual preference for child and aggressive stimuli: comparison of rapists and child molesters using auditory and visual stimuli.

154 Ss were tested using penile plethysmography as part of intake into a voluntary inpatient sex offender treatment program. The testing protocol included slide stimuli of nude males and females in four age categories ranging from age 1 to adult; audiotaped descriptions of sexual activity with children of both genders which included fondling, sexual contact with no resistance, coercive sexual contact, sexual assault, nonsexual assault, and consensual sexual contact with an adult; videotaped depictions of rape of an adult woman, nonsexual assault of an adult woman and consensual sexual involvement with an adult woman, and audiotaped descriptions that paralleled the videotapes. The results indicated that child molesters (male victim) show a decidedly more offense related arousal profile than either child molesters (female victim) or rapists, and that the profiles of child molesters (female victim) and rapists are remarkably similar, although statistically significantly different from each other. Rapists respond significantly more to rape and nonsexual assault than either of the two child molester groups, with child molesters with female victims responding more than those with male victims. In all three groups, the highest level of noncoercive adult responding was to women, with differences among offense groups present for visual stimuli, but not in response to auditory stimuli. Overall, the patterns of results are similar whether they are based on composites across stimulus modality or on the individual stimuli.