An antisense RNA-mediated mechanism eliminates a meiosis-specific copper-regulated transcript in mitotic cells.

Sense and antisense transcripts produced from convergent gene pairs could interfere with the expression of either partner gene. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, we found that the iss1(+) gene produces two transcript isoforms, including a long antisense mRNA that is complementary to the meiotic cum1(+) sense transcript, inhibiting cum1(+) expression in vegetative cells. Inhibition of cum1(+) transcription was not at the level of its initiation because fusion of the cum1(+) promoter to the lacZ gene showed that activation of the reporter gene occurs in response to low copper conditions. Further analysis showed that the transcription factor Cuf1 and conserved copper-signaling elements (CuSEs) are required for induction of cum1(+)-lacZ transcription under copper deficiency. Insertion of a multipartite polyadenylation signal immediately downstream of iss1(+) led to the exclusive production of a shorter iss1(+) mRNA isoform, thereby allowing accumulation of cum1(+) sense mRNA in copper-limited vegetative cells. This finding suggested that the long iss1(+) antisense mRNA could pair with cum1(+) sense mRNA, thereby producing double-stranded RNA molecules that could induce RNAi. We consistently found that mutant strains for RNAi (dcr1Δ, ago1Δ, rdp1Δ, and clr4Δ) are defective in selectively eliminating cum1(+) sense transcript in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Taken together, these results describe the first example of a copper-regulated meiotic gene repressed by an antisense transcription mechanism in vegetative cells.

YY1 binds to α-synuclein 3'-flanking region SNP and stimulates antisense noncoding RNA expression.

α-synuclein (SNCA) is an established susceptibility gene for Parkinson's disease (PD), one of the most common human neurodegenerative disorders. Increased SNCA is considered to lead to PD and dementia with Lewy bodies. Four single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SNCA 3' region were prominently associated with PD among different ethnic groups. To examine how these SNPs influence disease susceptibility, we analyzed their potential effects on SNCA gene expression. We found that rs356219 showed allele-specific features. Gel shift assay using nuclear extracts from SH-SY5Y cells showed binding of one or more proteins to the protective allele, rs356219-A. We purified the rs356219-A-protein complex with DNA affinity beads and identified a bound protein using mass spectrometry. This protein, YY1 (Yin Yang 1), is an ubiquitous transcription factor with multiple functions. We next investigated SNCA expression change in SH-SY5Y cells by YY1 transfection. We also analyzed the expression of antisense noncoding RNA (ncRNA) RP11-115D19.1 in SNCA 3'-flanking region, because rs356219 is located in intron of RP11-115D19.1. Little change was observed in SNCA expression levels; however, RP11-115D19.1 expression was prominently stimulated by YY1. In autopsied cortices, positive correlation was observed among RP11-115D19.1, SNCA and YY1 expression levels, suggesting their functional interactions in vivo. Knockdown of RP11-115D19.1 increased SNCA expression significantly in SH-SY5Y cells, suggesting its repressive effect on SNCA expression. Our findings of the protective allele-specific YY1 and antisense ncRNA raised a novel possible mechanism to regulate SNCA expression.

Promoter RNA links transcriptional regulation of inflammatory pathway genes.

Although many long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been discovered, their function and their association with RNAi factors in the nucleus have remained obscure. Here, we identify RNA transcripts that overlap the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) promoter and contain two adjacent binding sites for an endogenous miRNA, miR-589. We find that miR-589 binds the promoter RNA and activates COX-2 transcription. In addition to miR-589, fully complementary duplex RNAs that target the COX-2 promoter transcript activate COX-2 transcription. Activation by small RNA requires RNAi factors argonaute-2 (AGO2) and GW182, but does not require AGO2-mediated cleavage of the promoter RNA. Instead, the promoter RNA functions as a scaffold. Binding of AGO2 protein/small RNA complexes to the promoter RNA triggers gene activation. Gene looping allows interactions between the promoters of COX-2 and phospholipase A2 (PLA2G4A), an adjacent pro-inflammatory pathway gene that produces arachidonic acid, the substrate for COX-2 protein. miR-589 and fully complementary small RNAs regulate both COX-2 and PLA2G4A gene expression, revealing an unexpected connection between key steps of the eicosanoid signaling pathway. The work demonstrates the potential for RNA to coordinate locus-dependent assembly of related genes to form functional operons through cis-looping.

Targeting the chromosome partitioning protein ParA in tuberculosis drug discovery.

OBJECTIVE: To identify inhibitors of the essential chromosome partitioning protein ParA that are active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. METHODS: Antisense expression of the parA orthologue MSMEG_6939 was induced on the Mycobacterium smegmatis background. Screening of synthetic chemical libraries was performed to identify compounds with higher anti-mycobacterial activity in the presence of parA antisense. Differentially active compounds were validated for specific inhibition of purified ParA protein from M. tuberculosis (Rv3918c). ParA inhibitors were then characterized for their activity towards M. tuberculosis in vitro. RESULTS: Under a number of culture conditions, parA antisense expression in M. smegmatis resulted in reduced growth. This effect on growth provided a basis for the detection of compounds that increased susceptibility to expression of parA antisense. Two compounds identified from library screening, phenoxybenzamine and octoclothepin, also inhibited the in vitro ATPase activity of ParA from M. tuberculosis. Structural in silico analyses predict that phenoxybenzamine and octoclothepin undergo interactions compatible with the active site of ParA. Octoclothepin exhibited significant bacteriostatic activity towards M. tuberculosis. CONCLUSIONS: Our data support the use of whole-cell differential antisense screens for the discovery of inhibitors of specific anti-tubercular drug targets. Using this approach, we have identified an inhibitor of purified ParA and whole cells of M. tuberculosis.

RETRACTED: Secondary siRNAs result from unprimed RNA synthesis and form a distinct class.

In Caenorhabditis elegans, an effective RNA interference (RNAi) response requires the production of secondary short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) by RNA-directed RNA polymerases (RdRPs). We cloned secondary siRNAs from transgenic C. elegans lines expressing a single 22-nucleotide primary siRNA. Several secondary siRNAs start a few nucleotides downstream of the primary siRNA, indicating that non-RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex)-cleaved mRNAs are substrates for secondary siRNA production. In lines expressing primary siRNAs with single-nucleotide mismatches, secondary siRNAs do not carry the mismatch but contain the nucleotide complementary to the mRNA. We infer that RdRPs perform unprimed RNA synthesis. Secondary siRNAs are only of antisense polarity, carry 5' di- or triphosphates, and are only in the minority associated with RDE-1, the RNAi-specific Argonaute protein. Therefore, secondary siRNAs represent a distinct class of small RNAs. Their biogenesis depends on RdRPs, and we propose that each secondary siRNA is an individual RdRP product.

Importance of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase expression in insulin-producing cells for the toxicity of reactive oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokines.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Free radicals generated in mitochondria play a crucial role in the toxic effects of cytokines upon insulin-producing cells. This study therefore investigated the role of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) in cytokine-mediated toxicity in insulin-producing cells. METHODS: MnSOD was either stably overexpressed (MnSODsense) or stably suppressed (MnSODantisense) in insulin-producing RINm5F cells. Cell viability was quantified after incubation with different chemical reactive oxygen species (ROS) generators and with cytokines (IL-1beta alone or a mixture of IL-1beta, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma). Additionally, cell proliferation and endogenous MnSOD protein expression were determined after exposure to cytokines. RESULTS: After incubation with hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) or hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase no significant differences were observed in viability between control and MnSODsense or MnSODantisense clones. MnSOD overexpression reduced the viability of MnSODsense cells after exposure to the intracellular ROS generator menadione compared with control and MnSODantisense cells. MnSODsense cells also showed the highest susceptibility to cytokine toxicity with more than 75% loss of viability and a significant reduction of the proliferation rate after 72 h of incubation with a cytokine mixture. In comparison with control cells (67% viability loss), the reduction of viability in MnSODantisense cells was lower (50%), indicating a sensitising role of MnSOD in the progression of cytokine toxicity. The cell proliferation rate decreased in parallel to the reduction of cell viability. The MnSOD expression level after exposure to cytokines was also significantly lower in MnSODantisense cells than in control or MnSODsense cells. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The increase of the mitochondrial imbalance between the superoxide- and the H(2)O(2)-inactivating enzyme activities corresponds with a greater susceptibility to cytokines. Thus optimal antioxidative strategies to protect insulin-producing cells against cytokine toxicity may comprise a combined overexpression of H(2)O(2)-inactivating enzymes or suppression of MnSOD activity.

Modulation of the cellulose content of tuber cell walls by antisense expression of different potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) CesA clones.

Four potato cellulose synthase (CesA) homologs (StCesA1, 2, 3 and 4) were isolated by screening a cDNA library made from developing tubers. Based on sequence comparisons and the fact that all four potato cDNAs were isolated from this single cDNA-library, all four StCesA clones are likely to play a role in primary cell wall biosynthesis. Several constructs were generated to modulate cellulose levels in potato plants in which the granule-bound starch synthase promoter was used to target the modification to the tubers. The StCesA3 was used for up- and down-regulation of the cellulose levels by sense (SE-StCesA3) and antisense (AS-StCesA3) expression of the complete cDNA. Additionally, the class-specific regions (CSR) of all four potato cellulose synthase genes were used for specific down-regulation (antisense) of the corresponding CesA genes (csr1, 2, 3 and 4). None of the transformants showed an overt developmental phenotype. Sections of tubers were screened for altered cell wall structure by Fourier Transform Infrared microspectroscopy (FTIR) and exploratory Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and those plants discriminating from WT plants were analysed for cellulose content and monosaccharide composition. Several transgenic lines were obtained with mainly decreased levels of cellulose. These results show that the cellulose content in potato tubers can be reduced down to 40% of the WT level without affecting normal plant development, and that constructs based on the CSR alone are specific and sufficient to down-regulate cellulose biosynthesis.

Controlled expression of an rpoS antisense RNA can inhibit RpoS function in Escherichia coli.

We show that an inducible rpoS antisense RNA complementary to the rpoS message can inhibit expression of RpoS in both exponential and stationary phases and can attenuate expression of the rpoS regulon in Escherichia coli. Plasmids containing rpoS antisense DNA expressed under the control of the T7lac promoter and T7 RNA polymerase were constructed, and expression of the rpoS antisense RNA was optimized in the pET expression system. rpoS antisense RNA levels could be manipulated to effectively control the expression of RpoS and RpoS-dependent genes. RpoS expression was inhibited by the expression of rpoS antisense RNA in both exponential and stationary phases in E. coli. RpoS-dependent catalase HPII was also downregulated, as determined by catalase activity assays and with native polyacrylamide gels stained for catalase. Induced RpoS antisense expression also reduced the level of RpoS-dependent glycogen synthesis. These results demonstrate that controlled expression of antisense RNA can be used to attenuate expression of a regulator required for the expression of host adaptation functions and may offer a basis for designing effective antimicrobial agents.

Expression of antisense SnRK1 protein kinase sequence causes abnormal pollen development and male sterility in transgenic barley.

A chimaeric gene was constructed comprising a wheat high molecular weight glutenin subunit gene promoter, a 304-bp sucrose non-fermenting-1-related (SnRK1) protein kinase sequence in the antisense orientation, and the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S RNA gene terminator. Transgenic barley plants containing the antisense SnRK1 chimaeric gene were produced by particle bombardment of barley immature embryos with the aim of obtaining plants expressing the antisense SnRK1 sequence in the seeds. Despite the fact that the promoter was expected to be active only in seeds, two independent transgenic lines were found to fail to transmit the transgene to the T1 generation. These T0 plants had matured and died before this was discovered, but subsequently four other independent transgenic lines were found to be affected in the same way. Cytological analysis of the pollen grains in these lines showed that about 50% were normal but the rest had arrested at the binucleate stage of development, were small, pear-shaped, contained little or no starch and were non-functional. The presence of antisense SnRK1 transcripts was detected in the anthers of the four lines analyzed and a ubiquitin promoter/UidA (Gus) gene, one of the marker genes codelivered with the antisense gene, was found to be expressed only in the abnormal pollen. Expression analyses confirmed that SnRK1 is expressed in barley anthers and that expression of one class of SnRK1 transcripts (SnRK1b) was reduced in the abnormal lines. All of the abnormal lines showed approximately 50% seed set, and none of the transgenes were detected in the T1 generation.

Suppression of manganese superoxide dismutase augments sensitivity to radiation, hyperthermia and doxorubicin in colon cancer cell lines by inducing apoptosis.

Increased expression of manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD), one of the mitochondrial enzymes involved in the redox system, has been shown to diminish the cytotoxic effects of several anti-cancer modalities, including tumour necrosis factor-alpha, ionizing radiation, certain chemotherapeutic agents and hyperthermia. We asked if Mn-SOD is a potential target to augment the sensitivity of cancer cells to various anti-cancer treatments and for this we established stable Mn-SOD antisense RNA expressing cell clones from two human colon cancer cell lines, HCT116 (p53 wild-type) and DLD1 (p53 mutant-type). Suppression of Mn-SOD in HCT116 was accompanied by an increased sensitivity to radiation, hyperthermia and doxorubicin, as compared with findings in controls. The mitochondrial permeability transition, as measured by a decrease of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential was more intensely induced by radiation in HCT116 antisense clones than in the control, an event followed by a greater extent of DNA fragmentation. Apoptosis was also induced by hyperthermia more intensely in HCT116 antisense clones than in the control. On the other hand, DLD1 antisense clones did not exhibit any enhancement of sensitivity to any of these treatments. These data support the possibility that inhibition of Mn-SOD activity renders colon cancer cells with wild-type p53 susceptible to apoptosis induced by radiation, hyperthermia and selected anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, we suggest that Mn-SOD could be a target molecule to overcome the resistance to anti-cancer treatments in some colon cancer cells carrying wild-type p53.

Multiple S gene family members including natural antisense transcripts are differentially expressed during development of maize flowers.

Within the large Brassica S gene family, SLG (S locus glycoprotein) and SRK (S locus receptor kinase) participate to the control of pollen-stigma self-incompatibility. In the self-compatible species maize, S gene family members are predominantly expressed in vegetative organs but are also expressed to a lesser extent in the stigma (silk). To determine if the expression of any S gene family members correlates with female receptivity, we analyzed their expression in developing maize silks. We show that a large family of maize S transcripts is expressed in developing silks. Surprisingly, we isolated a cDNA complementary to a large portion of the antisense strand of the maize receptor kinase S domain. Rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE)-polymerase chain reaction, RNase protection, and Northern hybridization with single-stranded riboprobes confirmed that natural antisense S transcripts exist in leaves and seedling shoots and in all sexual tissues tested except mature pollen. These natural antisense S transcripts co-exist with several less abundant sense S transcripts. The accumulation of sense and antisense S transcripts is differentially regulated during pollen and silk development. Thus, these results support a role for S gene family members in sexual tissue development and/or compatible pollination and reveal a new level of complexity in the regulation and function of the S gene family in maize.

Antisense expression of the human pro-melanin-concentrating hormone genes.

Expression of transcripts for human pro-melanin concentrating hormone (pMCH) were studied in the hypothalamus, the primary location for pMCH producing cells in the mammalian CNS. Human hypothalamic tissue was extracted for total RNA and the cDNA generated with reverse transcriptase (RT). PCR amplification with primers spanning exons 2 and 3 of the pMCH human-variant genes (pMCHL), yielded an unspliced product, confirming prior work [T.B. Campbell, C.K. McDonald, M. Hagen, The effect of structure in a long target RNA on ribozyme cleavage efficiency, Nucleic Acids Res. 25 (1997) 4985-4993]. In addition, this product was shown to be exclusively antisense, and to be derived from the 5p (pMCHL1), not the 5q (pMCHL2) locus. Thus, there is no evidence that the MCH peptide-precursor molecule is produced in the brain by the human-variant pMCHL loci. In contrast, corresponding RT-PCR for pMCH RNA generated by the locus on 12q, demonstrated the presence of both sense and antisense spliced RNA. Partial sequencing of the spliced product confirmed that production of at least the two C-terminal peptides would occur from the 12q pMCH locus. The significance of the findings for pMCH and pMCHL1 are discussed relative to what is known about the function of endogenous antisense RNA.

Analysis of late-blight disease resistance and freezing tolerance in transgenic potato plants expressing sense and antisense genes for an osmotin-like protein.

The expression patterns of plant defense genes encoding osmotin and osmotin-like proteins imply a dual function in osmotic stress and plant pathogen defense. We have produced transgenic potato (Solanum commersonii Dun.) plants constitutively expressing sense or antisense RNAs from chimeric gene constructs consisting of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and a cDNA (pA13) for an osmotin-like protein. Transgenic potato plants expressing high levels of the pA13 osmotin-like protein showed an increased tolerance to the late-blight fungus Phytophthora infestans at various phases of infection, with a greater resistance at an early phase of fungal infection. There was a decrease in the accumulation of osmotin-like mRNAs and proteins when antisense transformants were challenged by fungal infection, although the antisense transformants did not exhibit any alterations in disease susceptibility. Expression of pA13 sense and antisense RNAs had no effect on the development of freezing tolerance in transgenic plants when assayed under a variety of conditions including treatments with abscisic acid or low temperature. These results provide evidence of antifungal activity for a potato osmotin-like protein against the fungus P. infestans, but do not indicate that pA13 osmotin-like protein is a major determinant of freezing tolerance.

Inhibition of lipoxygenase in lentil protoplasts by expression of antisense RNA.

A number of plasmids were constructed containing chimeric genes consisting of fragments of antisense-oriented lentil lipoxygenase cDNA. The different constructs were tested for their ability to lower lipoxygenase activity in lentil protoplasts. Plasmids containing a full length lentil lipoxygenase cDNA proved to be the most effective, reducing the activity of the target enzyme to 70% of the control value. On the other hand, the full length lentil lipoxygenase cDNA in the sense orientation yielded a 20% increase of lipoxygenase activity.

Gene regulation by antisense RNA in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

This report describes experiments designed to demonstrate the suitability of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe as a host for antisense RNA regulation. A lacZ gene-expressing yeast strain was constructed and used as a host for the expression of a series of antisense RNAs complementary to various regions of the target lacZ mRNA. All lacZ antisense genes were placed under control of the thiamine-repressible nmt1 promoter of S. pombe and expressed from episomal plasmids. For each antisense plasmid a corresponding sense control plasmid was constructed. All lacZ antisense genes were shown to express antisense RNAs of the expected size at equivalent steady-state levels. beta-Galactosidase activity in transformed cells expressing the long, short 5' or short 3' lacZ antisense RNAs was shown to be reduced by 45%, 20%, and 10%, respectively, relative to control transformants. Further experiments indicated that antisense RNA regulation in this system was conditional and reversible, with the observed reduction of beta-galactosidase activity being dependent on the transcription of lacZ antisense RNA. Our results represent the first successful example of antisense RNA regulation of gene expression in yeast and establish S. pombe as an experimental model for the biochemical analysis of antisense RNA regulation.

Human p59fyn(T) regulates OKT3-induced calcium influx by a mechanism distinct from PIP2 hydrolysis in Jurkat T cells.

The earliest biochemical event after cross-linking of TCR is the tyrosine phosphorylation of a variety of substrates. At least three nonreceptor tyrosine kinases have been implicated in this signaling cascade: p59fyn(T), p56lck, and ZAP-70. Recently, PLC gamma 1 has been shown to be tyrosine phosphorylated in T cells after receptor activation. This increase in tyrosine phosphorylation correlates with the increased activity of the enzyme. The substrate for PLC gamma 1, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), is hydrolyzed to the protein kinase C activator diacylglycerol and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3), which promotes calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. These results lend support to the notion that calcium mobilization after TCR cross-linking is mediated by increased levels of IP3. In this study we have cloned and transfected a human p59fyn(T) cDNA in the anti-sense configuration into the human T cell line, Jurkat, resulting in decreased expression of the protein. We find that cell lines expressing significantly reduced levels of p59fyn(T) exhibit significantly lower calcium influx following OKT3 activation. However, the level of IP3 production was unchanged and IP1 and IP2 levels were elevated. These data indicate that p59fyn(T) can regulate calcium influx by a mechanism distinct from PIP2 hydrolysis.

Field evaluation of transgenic potato plants expressing an antisense granule-bound starch synthase gene: increase of the antisense effect during tuber growth.

Transgenic plants of a tetraploid potato cultivar were obtained in which the amylose content of tuber starch was reduced via antisense RNA-mediated inhibition of the expression of the gene encoding granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS). GBSS is one of the key enzymes in the biosynthesis of starch and catalyses the formation of amylose. The antisense GBSS genes, based on the full-length GBSS cDNA driven by the 35S CaMV promoter or the potato GBSS promoter, were introduced into the potato genome by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Expression of each of these genes resulted in the complete inhibition of GBSS gene expression, and thus in the production of amylose-free tuber starch, in mature field-grown plants originating from rooted in vitro plantlets of 4 out of 66 transgenic clones. Clones in which the GBSS gene expression was incompletely inhibited showed an increase of the extent of inhibition during tuber growth. This is likely to be due to the increase of starch granule size during tuber growth and the specific distribution pattern of starch components in granules of clones with reduced GBSS activity. Expression of the antisense GBSS gene from the GBSS promoter resulted in a higher stability of inhibition in tubers of field-grown plants as compared to expression from the 35S CaMV promoter. Field analysis of the transgenic clones indicated that inhibition of GBSS gene expression could be achieved without significantly affecting the starch and sugar content of transgenic tubers, the expression level of other genes involved in starch and tuber metabolism and agronomic characteristics such as yield and dry matter content.

Inhibition of viroid infection by antisense RNA expression in transgenic plants.

Complex formation between different antisense RNAs directed against either plus-strand or minus-strand sequences of the potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) was studied using temperature-gradient gel electrophoresis and immunochemical detection with an antibody specific for double-stranded RNA. Short minus-strand sequences were directed against the upper central conserved region (UCCR) of plus-strand viroid replication intermediates, a plus-strand corresponding to the left half of the rod-like secondary structure (VL+) against minus-strand replication intermediates. It was shown that antisense RNA forms complexes with the corresponding target RNA only with low yield during incubation at low (physiological) temperatures but with high yield during in vitro transcription of the target RNA when the antisense RNA is already present in the solution. The antisense RNA sequences were integrated into Solanum tuberosum L. by Agrobacterium tumefaciens transformation. Antisense RNA expression in vivo was analyzed by Northern analysis. Infection tests were performed using the transgenic potato lines in order to evaluate their degree of resistance against PSTVd infection. Although some lines showed a significant inhibition of viroid accumulation, a high variability of viroid infection in different transgenic potato lines was obtained. Since strongly infected plants were observed in all transgenic lines 6 to 8 weeks post inoculation, a threshold concentration of viroid, overcoming the antisense effect has to be assumed. When the rate of viroid accumulation was tested using agroinfection assays on leaf discs, a stronger antisense effect could be achieved.

Expression of antisense nodulin-35 RNA in Vigna aconitifolia transgenic root nodules retards peroxisome development and affects nitrogen availability to the plant.

A nodulin-35 (N-35) cDNA encoding nodule-specific uricase (EC 1.7.3.3.) was isolated from a Vigna aconitifolia (mothbean) root nodule cDNA library. Sequence analysis of Vigna uricase (VN-35) cDNA revealed 90% homology to that of soybean. The VN-35 cDNA was inserted in the antisense orientation downstream of the caMV-35S promoter, and transgenic hairy roots were formed on Vigna plants using Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Infection with Bradyrhizobium (cowpea) gave rise to root nodules on transgenic hairy roots supported by the wild-type shoot. Expression of antisense VN-35 RNA was detected in transgenic nodules on individual roots using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The nodules expressing antisense VN-35 RNA were smaller in size and showed lower uricase activity than nodules formed on the hairy roots transformed with a binary vector containing beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene (used as control), and the plants exhibited nitrogen deficiency symptoms. Ultrastructural analysis and immunogold labeling with antibody against soybean N-35 revealed that the growth of peroxisomes was retarded in transgenic nodules expressing antisense VN-35 RNA. These data suggest that a reduction in ureide biosynthesis limits the availability of symbiotically reduced nitrogen to the plant. The nodules of tropical legumes appear to be specialized in nitrogen assimilation and are developmentally controlled to produce and transport ureides.

Inducible expression of calmodulin antisense RNA in Dictyostelium cells inhibits the completion of cytokinesis.

The single gene encoding calmodulin in the eukaryotic microorganism Dictyostelium discoideum was cloned and sequenced. The gene was found to contain three introns, one lying immediately after the translation initiation codon. The deduced amino acid sequence indicated that Dictyostelium calmodulin contains 19 amino acid differences from vertebrate calmodulin, including extensions at both termini. Northern blot analysis showed that similar levels of calmodulin mRNA are present throughout growth and development of wild-type cells. A complete copy of the calmodulin cDNA was prepared, and an 87-base pair fragment complementary to the 5'-end of the calmodulin mRNA was subcloned into the Dictyostelium transformation vector pVEII, such that expression of the antisense transcript was driven by the discoidin I gamma promoter. Transformed cells were selected and maintained at low cell density, a condition resulting in minimal activity of the discoidin I promoter. High level expression was induced by allowing the transformants to reach high cell density or by growing them in the presence of medium conditioned by high density cells. Under these conditions, in which calmodulin mRNA and protein levels were reduced about twofold, the calmodulin antisense transformants lost the ability to complete cytokinesis. A contractile ring formed and constricted, but the midbody linking daughter cells failed to break. The resulting cell population contained multinucleated cells and networks of cells connected by cytoplasmic bridges. Normal cell division was restored when the cells were diluted to low density. These observations have identified a new point at which calmodulin may regulate cell cleavage.