Do Silene species with exposed stigmas tolerate interference by heterospecific pollen?

PREMISE: Co-flowering species that have not evolved an avoidance mechanism may have tolerance to heterospecific pollen (HP) deposition as an adaptive strategy to minimize any deleterious effects of HP transfer, but empirical evidence for the tolerance hypothesis remains scarce. METHODS: To estimate the potential effects of heterospecific pollen deposition (HPD) on female reproductive success, we counted conspecific (CP) and HP pollen grains deposited on stigmas and assessed subsequent seed set of both open- and hand-pollinated flowers in three co-flowering Silene species with exposed stigmas that usually received numerous HP grains on the elongated receptive area. RESULTS: The percentage of HP grains per flower (HP%) varied from 16.6% to 43.0% among three species. Silene chungtienensis had lower HP%, and the CP-HP relationship was neutral; S. gracilicaulis and S. yunnanensis had a relatively higher HP% with a positive CP-HP relationship. The effects of CP and HP number on natural seed set were positive for all three species, but HP% had stronger negative effects in S. chungtienensis and S. gracilicaulis. In hand-pollinated flowers of the three Silene species, seed set did not decrease with HP whether CP was in excess or insufficient, indicating no negative effects of HPD on seed production. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with the tolerance hypothesis, our results indicated that species with higher HP interference are likely to be tolerant to an increase in HP%. These species with generalist-pollinated flowers and exposed large stigmas may benefit from an increase of conspecific pollen deposition, despite the associated increase in heterospecific pollen deposition.

Silviridoside: A New Triterpene Glycoside from Silene viridiflora with Promising Antioxidant and Enzyme Inhibitory Potential.

A new triterpene glycoside, silviridoside, was isolated from the aerial parts of Silene viridiflora (Caryophyllaceae) using different chromatographic techniques. The structure of silviridoside was comprehensively elucidated as 3-O-ß-D-galacturonopyranosyl-quillaic acid 28-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)]-ß-D-fucopyranosyl ester by one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS). Silviridoside showed promising antioxidant activity in different antioxidant assays such as 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (2.32 mg TE/g), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) (1.24 mg TE/g), cupric-reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) (9.59 mg TE/g), ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (5.13 mg TE/g), phosphomolybdenum (PHD) (0.28 mmol TE/g), and metal-chelating (MCA) (6.62 mg EDTA/g) assays. It exhibited a good inhibitory potential on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (2.52 mg GALAE/g), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) (7.16 mg GALAE/g), α-amylase (0.19 mmol ACAE/g), α-glucosidase (1.21 mmol ACAE/g), and tyrosinase (38.83 mg KAE/g). An in silico evaluation of the pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and toxicity properties of silviridoside showed that the new compound exhibited reasonable pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties without any mutagenic effect, but slight toxicity. Thus, it could be concluded that silviridoside could act as a promising lead drug for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical developments to combat oxidative stress and various disorders, but a future optimization is necessary.

6-Bromo-2-naphthol from Silene armeria extract sensitizes Acinetobacter baumannii strains to polymyxin.

The overuse of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, which are resistant to various antibiotics. Combination therapies using natural compounds with antibiotics have been found to have synergistic effects against several pathogens. Synergistic natural compounds can potentiate the effects of polymyxins for the treatment of Acinetobacter baumannii infection. Out of 120 types of plant extracts, only Silene armeria extract (SAE) showed a synergistic effect with polymyxin B (PMB) in our fractional inhibitory concentration and time-kill analyses. The survival rate of G. mellonella infected with A. baumannii ATCC 17978 increased following the synergistic treatment. Interestingly, the addition of osmolytes, such as trehalose, canceled the synergistic effect of SAE with PMB; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Quadrupole time-of-flight liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed 6-bromo-2-naphthol (6B2N) to be a major active compound that exhibited synergistic effects with PMB. Pretreatment with 6B2N made A. baumannii cells more susceptible to PMB exposure in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, indicating that 6B2N exhibits consequential synergistic action with PMB. Moreover, the exposure of 6B2N-treated cells to PMB led to higher membrane leakage and permeability. The present findings provide a promising approach for utilizing plant extracts as adjuvants to reduce the toxicity of PMB in A. baumannii infection.

A comparative analysis of saponin-enriched fraction from Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, Sapindus mukorossi (Gaertn) and Chlorophytum borivilianum (Santapau and Fernandes): an in vitro hemolytic and cytotoxicity evaluation.

To explore the newer saponin resources, in vitro toxicity of saponin-enriched fraction (SEF) extracted from Silene vulgaris(SV) was evaluated for first time and compared with in vitro toxicity of SEF extracted from Sapindus mukorossi (SM) and Chlorophytum borivilianum (CV). All extracted SEF from diverse resources were characterized by immersing TLC plates in 0.5% RBC suspension method, by ethanol: sulfuric acid method and by estimating hRst values. Each extracted SEF clearly portrayed specific pattern with varied hRst range. White spots against a pinkish-red background and greenish-black spots in case of immersion method and spraying method respectively were observed. After initial characterization, in vitro 0.5% sheep RBC lytic activities and VERO cell cytotoxic activities (via SRB assay) of each extracted SEF were also evaluated. Furthermore, SEF of SV showed very less hemolytic activity compared to SM and CB. The HD50 values for SV, SM, and CB were 736.7 ± 2.824, 18.0 ± 1.894, and 170.70 ± 2.783 µg/mL, respectively. SEF of SV (IC50 ≥ 200 µg/mL) was less toxic for VERO cell line than SEF of SM (IC50 = 150.8 µg/mL) and CB (IC50 = 137.1 µg/mL). Hence, the SEF of SV was found to be less toxic and can be used as a new and safer source of saponins.

Evaluation of the Gastroprotective Effect of the Flavonoid Complex from Lychnis chalcedonica L. on the Models of Experimental Ulcerogenesis.

Using rat and mouse models of neurogenic, ethanol-induced, and indometacin-induced damage to the gastric mucosa we demonstrated that course preventive treatment with flavonoid complex from aerial parts of Lychnis chalcedonica L. increased the resistance of gastric mucosa to ulcerogenic factors of different etiology. The gastroprotective effect of the phytocomplex in a dose range of 16-1600 µg/kg was comparable with that of the reference drug plantaglucide and was superior to that of the reference drugs eleutherococcus extract and methyluracil in the therapeutic doses. The antiulcerogenic activity of Lychnis chalcedonica flavonoid complex considerably exceeded activity of Lychnis chalcedonica L. extract demonstrated in our previous experiments.

Efficacy of Silene arenosa extract on acetylcholinesterase in Bungarus sindanus (krait) venom.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the efficacy of Silene arenosa extract on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) of krait (Bungarus Sindanus) snake venom. METHODS: The present project designed to evaluate the inhibition of AChE by following standard procedures. RESULTS: Statistical analysis of the results showed that Silene arenosa exerted 73% inhibition against the krait venom acetylcholinesterase at fixed substrate acetylcholine (ACh) concentration (0.5 mM). Kinetic analysis using the Lineweaver Burk plot revealed that Silene arenosa caused a competitive type of inhibition i.e. Km values increased from 26.6 to 93.3 mM (26.6% to 93.3%) and Vmax remained constant in a concentration-dependent manner. Silene arenosa competes with the substrate to bind at the active site of the enzyme. The Kmapp of venom AChE for Silene arenosa increased from 60% to 81.6% and the Vmaxapp remains constant. Ki (inhibition constant was estimated to be 48 µg for snake venom; while the Km (Michaelis-Menten constant of AChE- substrate into AChE and product) was estimated to be 0.5 mM. The IC50 of AchE calculated for Silene arenosa was 67 µg. CONCLUSION: The present results suggest that Silene arenosa extract can be considered as an inhibitor of snake venom AChE.

Effects of Melandrium firmum Rohrbach on RANKL­induced osteoclast differentiation and OVX rats.

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by reduced bone mineral density (BMD), which results in an increased risk of fracture. Melandrium firmum (Siebold & Zucc.) Rohrbach (MFR), 'Wangbulryuhaeng' in Korean, is the dried aerial portion of Melandrii Herba Rohrbach, which is a member of the Caryophyllaceae family and has been used to treat several gynecological conditions as a traditional medicine. However, to the best of our knowledge, the effect of MFR on osteoclast differentiation and osteoporosis has not been assessed. To evaluate the effects of MFR on osteoclast differentiation, tartrate­resistant acid phosphatase staining, actin ring formation and bone resorption assays were used. Additionally, receptor activator of nuclear factor­κB ligand­induced expression of nuclear factor of activated T cell, cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1) and c­Fos were measured using western blotting and reverse transcription­PCR. The expression levels of osteoclast­related genes were also examined. To further investigate the anti­osteoporotic effects of MFR in vivo, an ovariectomized (OVX) rat model of menopausal osteoporosis was established. Subsequently, the femoral head was scanned using micro­computed tomography. The results revealed that MFR suppressed osteoclast differentiation, formation and function. Specifically, MFR reduced the expression levels of osteoclast­related genes by downregulating transcription factors, such as NFATc1 and c­Fos. Consistent with the in vitro results, administration of MFR water extract to OVX rats reduced BMD loss, and reduced the expression levels of NFATc1 and cathepsin K in the femoral head. In conclusion, MFR may contribute to alleviate osteoporosis­like symptoms. These results suggested that MFR may exhibit potential for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.

A new insulin-sensitive enhancer from Silene viscidula, WPTS, treats type 2 diabetes by ameliorating insulin resistance, reducing dyslipidemia, and promoting proliferation of islet ß cells.

Wacao pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins (WPTS) is a newly discovered insulin sensitivity enhancer. It is a powerful hypoglycemic compound derived from Silene viscidula, which has a hypoglycemic effect similar to that of insulin. It can rapidly reduce blood glucose levels, normalizing them within 3 days of administration. However, its mechanism of action is completely different from that of insulin. Thus, we aimed to determine the pharmacological effects and mechanism of activity of WPTS on type 2 diabetes to elucidate the main reasons for its rapid effects. The results showed that WPTS could effectively improve insulin resistance in KKAy diabetic mice. Comparative transcriptomics showed that WPTS could upregulate the expression of insulin resistance-related genes such as glucose transporter type 4 (Glut4), insulin receptor substrate 1 (Irs1), Akt, and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and downregulate the expression of lipid metabolism-related genes such as monoacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 (Moat1), lipase C (Lipc), and sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 4 (Smpd4). The results indicated that the differentially expressed genes could regulate lipid metabolism via the PI3K/AKT metabolic pathway, and it is noteworthy that WPTS was found to upregulate Glut4 expression, decrease blood glucose levels, and attenuate insulin resistance via the PI3K/AKT pathway. Q-PCR and western blotting further validated the transcriptomics findings at the mRNA and protein levels, respectively. We believe that WPTS can achieve a rapid hypoglycemic effect by improving the lipid metabolism and insulin resistance of the diabetic KKAy mice. WPTS could be a very promising candidate drug for the treatment of diabetes and deserves further research.

Differentially Expressed Genes Shared by Two Distinct Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) Types of Silene vulgaris Suggest the Importance of Oxidative Stress in Pollen Abortion.

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), encoded by the interacting mitochondrial and nuclear genes, causes pollen abortion or non-viability. CMS is widely used in agriculture and extensively studied in crops. Much less is known about CMS in wild species. We performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of male sterile and fertile individuals of Silene vulgaris, a model plant for the study of gynodioecy, to reveal the genes responsible for pollen abortion in this species. We used RNA-seq datasets previously employed for the analysis of mitochondrial and plastid transcriptomes of female and hermaphrodite flower buds, making it possible to compare the transcriptomes derived from three genomes in the same RNA specimen. We assembled de novo transcriptomes for two haplotypes of S. vulgaris and identified differentially expressed genes between the females and hermaphrodites, associated with stress response or pollen development. The gene for alternative oxidase was downregulated in females. The genetic pathways controlling CMS in S. vulgaris are similar to those in crops. The high number of the differentially expressed nuclear genes contrasts with the uniformity of organellar transcriptomes across genders, which suggests these pathways are evolutionarily conserved and that selective mechanisms may shield organellar transcription against changes in the cytoplasmic transcriptome.

Firmosides A and B: two new sucrose ferulates from the aerial parts of Silene firma and evaluation of radical scavenging activities.

Two new tri-ferulates of sucrose, firmosides A and B (1 and 2, respectively), together with 18 known compounds (3-20), were isolated from the aerial parts of Silene firma. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods, including 1D, 2D NMR, and high-resolution electro-spray ionization-mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS). All the isolated compounds were evaluated for their free radical scavenging activity using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. As a result, two new compounds (1, 2) and 11 demonstrated significant radical scavenging activity, implying the usefulness as antioxidant agents.

Physicochemical and swelling properties of composite gel microparticles based on alginate and callus cultures pectins with low and high degrees of methylesterification.

Composite gel microparticles based on alginate and callus culture pectins with low and high degrees of methylesterification or apple pectin were produced. By varying the chemical composition of the pectic samples and the ratio of alginate to pectin, the gel strength, morphology, and swelling properties of composite microparticles can be altered. The inclusion of increasing concentrations of alginate in gel formulations promoted an increase in the microparticle gel strength and the formation of a smoother surface microrelief independently of the pectin chemical composition. Microparticles based on the pectin with a low degree of methylesterification (DM) and a higher concentration of alginate exhibited an increased swelling degree in the simulated digestive fluids. Microparticles based on the pectin with high DM and low alginate concentration were destroyed in the simulated intestinal fluid within 1 h due to the low Ca2+ content, gel strength, and grooved and rough surface of these microparticles. An increase in alginate concentration of gel formulations based on pectin with high DM led to increased stability of the microparticles in the simulated intestinal and colonic fluids due to increased Ca2+ content, microparticle gel strength and degree of crosslinking.

Temporal dynamics of sexual dimorphism in a dioecious species.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Sexual dimorphism for floral traits is common in dioecious plant species. Beyond its significance for understanding how selection acts on plant traits through male vs. female reproductive function, sexual dimorphism has also been proposed as a possible risky characteristic for insect-pollinated plants, as it could drive pollinators to forage mostly on male plants. However, even though most flowering plant species spread their flowering across several weeks or months, the temporal variation of floral phenotypes and sexual dimorphism have rarely been investigated. METHODS: We performed a survey of male and female plants from the dioecious generalist-pollinated Silene dioica (Caryophyllaceae) in a common garden experiment, over two consecutive flowering seasons. Flower number and floral size were measured each week, as well as pollen quantity and viability in male plants. KEY RESULTS: Sexual dimorphism was found for all investigated floral traits, with males showing an overall higher investment in flower production and flower size. Males and females showed a similar temporal decline in flower size. The temporal dynamics of daily flower number differed between sexes, with males showing a peak in the middle of their flowering season, whereas flower production by females was quite stable over time. At the scale of the experimental population, both individual and floral sex ratios appeared to vary across the flowering season. Moreover, because the onset of flowering varied among plants, the magnitude of sexual dimorphism in floral size also fluctuated strongly through time. CONCLUSIONS: Capturing male/female differences with only one temporal measurement per population may not be informative. This opens stimulating questions about how pollinator behaviour and resulting pollination efficiency may vary across the flowering season.

Triterpene glycosides from Silene odontopetala.

Silene species are known for their use in traditional medicine in treating several diseases. To the authors' knowledge there is no report on the chemical composition of S. odontopetala. Therefore, the phytochemical investigation of the methanol extract of S. odontopetala was carried out, leading to the isolation of six undescribed oleanane-type glycosides along with the known saponin azukisaponin IV. Their structures were elucidated by the analysis of 1D and 2D-NMR experiments, along with mass spectrometry analysis. The cytotoxic activity of oleanane-type saponins was evaluated against a small panel of cancer cell lines, including PC-3 (prostate carcinoma cells), MCF-7 (breast cancer cells), A549 (alveolar basal carcinoma cells), and HeLa (cervical carcinoma cells). Furthermore, the activity of isolated compounds against a normal cell line HEK-293, used for assessing their cytotoxicity, was evaluated.

Antihyperglycaemic, haemorheological and antioxidant activities of Lychnis chalcedonica L. extract in a streptozotocin-induced rat model of diabetes mellitus.

Background New therapeutic strategies, such as the use of agents to correct rheological disorders, are needed for the prevention and treatment of angiopathy in diabetic patients. The aim of this work was to study the antihyperglycaemic, haemorheologic and antioxidant activities of an extract from the flowering plant Lychnis chalcedonica L. (ELC) and 20-hydroxyecdysone using the streptozotocin-induced model of diabetic rats. Methods The streptozotocin-induced model of diabetes was produced using streptozotocin at a dose of 50 mg/kg (ip). Animals from the experimental groups were treated with ELC (150 mg/kg) or 20-hydroxyecdysone (1.1 mg/kg) intragastrically in 1% aqueous starch mucilage daily, for 14 days; rats of control groups received an equal volume of starch mucilage. The following parameters were measured: glucose concentration (GC) in blood, whole blood viscosity (WBV), conjugated dienes in RBC membranes. Macro- and microrheological indicators (viz. plasma viscosity, haematocrit, RBC aggregation (T1/2) and the RBC elongation index (EI)) were additionally measured in rats that received ELC, and in the control group. Results After treatment with ELC, the GC in rats was 19% lower than that in the control group (14.7 ± 0.9 mM compared to 18.2 ± 1.1 mM). Rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes have hyperviscosity syndrome, which is characterized by increased WBV, increased RBC aggregation and decreased deformability. ELC treatment reduced WBV at shear rates of 10-90 s-1 by 5-8%, and T1/2 and EI in the experimental group were 31% and 5-10% higher compared to the control group. 20-Hydroxyecdysone decreased WBV at shear rates of 10-90 s-1 by 3-11%. Finally, ELC and 20-hydroxyecdysone lowered the content of conjugated dienes by 27% and by 26% compared to the control groups. Conclusion In the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model, ELC showed measurable antihyperglycaemic activity; ELC and 20-hydroxyecdysone demonstrated similar haemorheological, and antioxidant activities.

Comparison of population genetic structures of the plant Silene stellata and its obligate pollinating seed predator moth Hadena ectypa.

Background and Aims: Population genetic structures and patterns of gene flow of interacting species provide important insights into the spatial scale of their interactions and the potential for local co-adaptation. We analysed the genetic structures of the plant Silene stellata and the nocturnal moth Hadena ectypa. Hadena ectypa acts as one of the important pollinators of S. stellata as well as being an obligate seed parasite on the plant. Although H. ectypa provides a substantial pollination service to S. stellata, this system is largely considered parasitic due to the severe seed predation by the Hadena larvae. Previous research on this system has found variable interaction outcomes across space, indicating the potential for a geographical selection mosaic. Methods: Using 11 microsatellite markers for S. stellata and nine markers for H. ectypa, we analysed the population genetic structure and the patterns and intensity of gene flow within and among three local populations in the Appalachians. Key Results: We found no spatial genetic structure in the moth populations, while significant differentiation was detected among the local plant populations. Additionally, we observed that gene flow rates among H. ectypa populations were more uniform and that the mean gene flow rate in H. ectypa was twice as large as that in S. stellata. Conclusions: Our results suggest that although the moths move frequently among populations, long-distance pollen carryover only happens occasionally. The difference in gene flow rates between S. stellata and H. ectypa could prevent strict local co-adaptation. Furthermore, higher gene flow rates in H. ectypa could also increase resistance of the local S. stellata populations to the parasitic effect of H. ectypa and therefore help to stabilize the Silene-Hadena interaction dynamics.

Pas de deux: An Intricate Dance of Anther Smut and Its Host.

The successful interaction between pathogen/parasite and host requires a delicate balance between fitness of the former and survival of the latter. To optimize fitness a parasite/pathogen must effectively create an environment conducive to reproductive success, while simultaneously avoiding or minimizing detrimental host defense response. The association between Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae and its host Silene latifolia serves as an excellent model to examine such interactions. This fungus is part of a species complex that infects species of the Caryophyllaceae, replacing pollen with the fungal spores. In the current study, transcriptome analyses of the fungus and its host were conducted during discrete stages of bud development so as to identify changes in fungal gene expression that lead to spore development and to identify changes associated with infection in the host plant. In contrast to early biotrophic phase stages of infection for the fungus, the latter stages involve tissue necrosis and in the case of infected female flowers, further changes in the developmental program in which the ovary aborts and a pseudoanther is produced. Transcriptome analysis via Illumina RNA sequencing revealed enrichment of fungal genes encoding small secreted proteins, with hallmarks of effectors and genes found to be relatively unique to the Microbotryum species complex. Host gene expression analyses also identified interesting sets of genes up-regulated, including those involving stress response, host defense response, and several agamous-like MADS-box genes (AGL61 and AGL80), predicted to interact and be involved in male gametophyte development.

Divergence in style length and pollen size leads to a postmating-prezygotic reproductive barrier among populations of Silene latifolia.

A central tenet of speciation research is the need to identify reproductive isolating barriers. One approach to this line of research is to identify the phenotypes that lead to reproductive isolation. Several studies on flowering plants have shown that differences in style length contribute to reproductive isolation between species, leading us to consider whether style length could act as a reproductive barrier among populations of a single species. This could occur if style length varied sufficiently and pollen size covaried with style length. Populations of Silene latifolia exhibit variation in flower size, including style length, that is negatively correlated with annual precipitation. We show that this divergence in style length has a genetic basis and acts as a reproductive barrier: males from small-flowered populations produced relatively small pollen grains that were poor at fertilizing ovules when crossed to females from large-flowered populations, leading to a significant reduction in seed production. Manipulating the distance pollen tubes had to travel revealed that this failure was purely mechanical and not the result of other incompatibilities. These results show that style length acts as a postmating-prezygotic reproductive barrier and indicate a potential link between ecotypic differentiation and reproductive isolation within a species.

Phytochemical components and biological activities of Silene arenarioides Desf.

In this study, six known compounds 1-6 were isolated from the aerial parts of Silene arenarioides Desf. using different chromatographic methods. The structures of these compounds were identified as maltol glycoside (1), soyacerebroside I (2), chrysin (3), apigenin (4), quercetin (5) and stigmasterol glucoside (6). The compounds (1) and (2) are reported for the first time from this genus. The isolated compounds were determined using NMR techniques (1H NMR, 13C NMR, COSY, HSQC and HMBC) and mass spectroscopy (ESI-MS). The antibacterial and antioxidant activities of extracts and of compound (1) have been evaluated. The antioxidant activity was performed by DPPH radical scavenging method, which showed that methanol extract possesses a good antioxidant activity with value of IC50 = 8.064 ± 0.005 µg/mL.

Cell Death and Cell Cycle Arrest of Silene latifolia Stamens and Pistils After Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae Infection.

Mechanisms of suppression of pistil primordia in male flowers and of stamen primordia in female flowers differ in diclinous plants. In this study, we investigated how cell death and cell cycle arrest are related to flower organ formation in Silene latifolia. Using in situ hybridization and a TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling) assay, we detected both cell cycle arrest and cell death in suppressed stamens of female flowers and suppressed pistils of male flowers in S. latifolia. In female flowers infected with Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae, developmental suppression of stamens is released, and cell cycle arrest and cell death do not occur. Smut spores are formed in S. latifolia anthers infected with M. lychnidis-dioicae, followed by cell death in the endothelium, middle layer, tapetal cells and pollen mother cells. Cell death is difficult to detect using a fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled TUNEL assay due to strong autofluorescence in the anther. We therefore combined a TUNEL assay in an infrared region with transmission electron microscopy to detect cell death in anthers. We show that following infection by M. lychnidis-dioicae, a TUNEL signal was not detected in the endothelium, middle layer or pollen mother cells, and cell death with outflow of cell contents, including the nucleoplast, was observed in tapetal cells.

[Features of Clonal Micropropagation of Silene cretacea (Caryophyllaceae) in in vitro Culture].

The features of the formation of microshoots in in vitro culture of Silene cretacea­endangered species with narrow ecological amplitude, which is a promising source of medicinal raw materials­were studied. It was demonstrated that, at the micropropagation step, basic Woody Plant Medium containing vitamins according to Murashige and Skoog and supplemented with 0.2 mg/L 6-benzylaminopurine, 1.0 mg/L kinetin, 1.0 mg/L gibberellic acid, and 0.5 mg/L indole-3-acetic acid is the most effective. The combination and concentration of these growth regulators, selected using mathematical combinatorial analysis, activated axillary buds and provided a high multiplication factor (9.3 ± 1.3 microshoots per explant). Morpho-histological analysis revealed the main stages of the formation of microshoots and proved the absence of callus formation during the whole time of the cultivation of explants. The features of the dynamics of the culture during the year of continuous cultivation are presented.