[Textual research on Bungarus Parvus].

Bungarus Parvus, a precious animal Chinese medicinal material used in clinical practice, is believed to be first recorded in Ying Pian Xin Can published in 1936. This study was carried out to analyze the names, geographical distribution, morphological characteristics, ecological habits, poisonousness, and medicinal parts by consulting ancient Chinese medical books and local chronicles, Chinese Pharmacopeia, different processing standards of trditional Chinese medicine(TCM) decoction pieces, and modern literatures. The results showed that the earliest medicinal record of Bungarus Parvus was traced to 1894. In 1930, this medicinal material was used in the formulation of Annao Pills. The original animal, Bungarus multicinctus, was recorded by the name of "Bojijia" in 1521. The morphological characteristics, ecological habits, and poisonousness of the original animal are the same in ancient and modern records. The geographical distribution is similar between the ancient records and modern documents such as China Medicinal Animal Fauna. The dried body of young B. multicinctus is used as Bungarus Parvus, which lack detailed references. As a matter of fact, it is still inconclusive whether there are differences between young snakes and adult snakes in terms of active ingredients, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications. This study clarified the medicinal history and present situation of Bungarus Parvus. On the basis of the results, it is suggested that systematic comparison on young and adult B. multicinctus should be carried out to provide references for revising the medicinal parts of B. multicinctus.

[Snakes as a source of drugs from the Han to the Song Dynasties].

This paper examined the history of snakes as a source of drugs from the Han to the Song Dynasties. Snake products, for medicinal purposes, were not widely used in the Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties out of worship and fear of snakes.The source of snake products taken for medical purposes might be partly because local people ate snakes in the South area. Palace snakes and pit viper products were taken as drugs in the Tang Dynasty for the treatment of leprosy and ulcers of the female external genitals. Zaocysdhumnades were seldom used as medicine because they were not recorded in medical documents in the Tang Dynasty, but only seen in some notes. They were widely used in medical practice in the late Tang and the early Song Dynasties and were formally recorded in medical documents for the diseases caused by Wind. Their effectiveness, rarity, high value and toxicity contraindication were repeatedly stressed while palace snakes and pit vipers were seldom mentioned and used.

A generalized framework for estimating snakebite underreporting using statistical models: A study in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease affecting deprived populations, and its burden is underestimated in some regions where patients prefer using traditional medicine, case reporting systems are deficient, or health systems are inaccessible to at-risk populations. Thus, the development of strategies to optimize disease management is a major challenge. We propose a framework that can be used to estimate total snakebite incidence at a fine political scale. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: First, we generated fine-scale snakebite risk maps based on the distribution of venomous snakes in Colombia. We then used a generalized mixed-effect model that estimates total snakebite incidence based on risk maps, poverty, and travel time to the nearest medical center. Finally, we calibrated our model with snakebite data in Colombia from 2010 to 2019 using the Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo algorithm. Our results suggest that 10.19% of total snakebite cases (532.26 yearly envenomings) are not reported and these snakebite victims do not seek medical attention, and that populations in the Orinoco and Amazonian regions are the most at-risk and show the highest percentage of underreporting. We also found that variables such as precipitation of the driest month and mean temperature of the warmest quarter influences the suitability of environments for venomous snakes rather than absolute temperature or rainfall. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our framework permits snakebite underreporting to be estimated using data on snakebite incidence and surveillance, presence locations for the most medically significant venomous snake species, and openly available information on population size, poverty, climate, land cover, roads, and the locations of medical centers. Thus, our algorithm could be used in other countries to estimate total snakebite incidence and improve disease management strategies; however, this framework does not serve as a replacement for a surveillance system, which should be made a priority in countries facing similar public health challenges.

Risks of snakebite and challenges to seeking and providing treatment for agro-pastoral communities in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Continuous occurrence of snakebite incidences and the vulnerability of some communities remain a critical problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite causing permanent disability to almost half a million people annually and numerous deaths, snakebite and associated complications are still largely neglected. This study aimed at elucidating risk factors associated with snakebite cases, treatment availability and case management practices for vulnerable agro-pastoralist communities in Northern Tanzania. METHODS: Data was collected in the Monduli (Arusha region) and the Simanjiro (Manyara region) districts in Tanzania. Interviews with 101 snakebite victims or their guardians and 13 health professionals from 3 health centers in the districts were conducted. Additionally, case records of patients admitted between 2007 and 2019 to the Meserani Snakebite Clinic were obtained. RESULTS: This study showed that appropriate treatment for snakebite including anti-venom, is difficult to access and that snakebite incidences were significantly linked to factors such as gender, age, socio-economic activity, season of the year, and whether being at home or out in the fields. Anti-venom and trained health professionals were only available at the Meserani Snake Park Clinic. Men were bitten most often (χ2 = 62.08, df = 4, p-value < 0.0001). Overall, adults between the ages of 18 and 60 years (χ2 = 62.08, df = 4, p-value < 0.0001) received most bites, usually while outdoors herding cattle in the dry season. A significant majority of victims looked for traditional treatment first (52.7%, χ2 = 29.541, df = 2, p-value = 0.0001). The results of this study present crucial information on what is needed to improve the accessibility to appropriate treatment after a snakebite among agro-pastoral communities. CONCLUSION: The situation regarding morbidity and mortality due to the inaccessibility of common treatment for snakebite in northern Tanzania is challenging. Reliance on traditional medicine exacerbates the situation. There is dire need to involve affected communities, researchers, the government, clinicians and the public in general, to work together and take part in the global snakebite initiative. Communities and health professionals recognise the underlying challenges and have valuable suggestions on how to improve the situation.

A prospective study of snakebite in a tertiary care hospital in south-western Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite is a neglected public health issue in Nepal. We aimed to characterize patients with snake envenoming admitted to hospital in south-western Nepal. METHODS: This was a prospective cohort study of 476 snakebite patients admitted to Bheri Hospital from May to December 2017. Data were collected on patient demographics, bite circumstances, snake type, treatment-seeking behavior, clinical effects, complications and treatment. RESULTS: There were 139/476 (29%) patients with clinical features of envenomation and 10 deaths (8%), of which six were prehospital deaths; 325/476 (68%) patients used non-recommended prehospital first aid, including 278 (58%) who applied a tourniquet and 43 (9%) consulting traditional healers. Median time to hospital arrival was 1.5 (IQR: 0.8-4) h. Also, 127 envenomated patients (91%) developed neurotoxicity and 12 (9%) hemotoxicity, while 124 patients (89%) received antivenom, with a median dose of 10 (4-30) vials. Three patients developed anaphylaxis following antivenom administration; 111 of 139 (80%) cases were admitted to the ICU and 48 (35%) were intubated. Median length of hospital stay for all cases was 0.5 (IQR: 0.5-1.2) d, but it was 2.2 (IQR: 1.5-3.8) d for envenomated cases. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of snakebite patients used non-recommended first aid or attended traditional healers. Almost one-third of patients developed systemic envenomation and required antivenom. The case fatality rate was high, but many died prior to arriving in hospital.

Morbidity survey of the history of snakebites in different communities in the alto Juruá, western Brazilian Amazon.

The Alto Juruá region has a rich diversity of venomous snakes, and snakebites represent an important cause of morbidity. The present study was carried out in five communities in the Alto Juruá region, and aimed to evaluate the history of snakebites in terms of which snakes were involved and what was the victims' conduct in relation to first aid and prevention. Between 2017 and 2019, semi-structured interviews were applied to 260 residents, 56 (21.53%) of whom had a history of snakebites. The profile of the victims is 73.2% male, a resident of rural areas who develops activities mainly in agriculture and extractivism and who has a low level of education. Just over half of the snakebites occurred during the rainy season (52.8%) and the majority during the day (77%). Bothrops bites were the most frequently reported (90.3%) and B. atrox was the most mentioned snake (jararaca and surucucu) for being responsible for snakebites (80.8%). Approximately 87.5% of the bites occurred to the lower limbs, and 48.2% of the victims were barefoot at the time of the bite. Inadequate first-aid procedures were reported, such as using tourniquets and consuming the drink known as "Específico Pessoa", not drinking water, and treatment with traditional therapy (phytotherapics, zootherapeutics and faith healers), as well as not seeking hospital care. Thus, the need to facilitate access to hospital units in these communities and health education (prevention and first aid) are essential in order to minimize this situation.

Alternative therapy improves hematological profiles of captive snakes from northeastern Brazil / Efeitos positivos de uma terapia alternativa nos perfis hematológicos de serpentes cativas no nordeste brasileiro

Objective: Evaluate the effects of alternative therapy on the hematological profiles of different families of captive snakes. Methodology: Captive snakes at NUROF-UFC were submitted to a clinical and hematological evaluation before and after applying an alternative treatment, including systematic sunbathing and hydration by soaking bathes twice a week for five weeks. The biometric, clinical, and hematological data were compared by multivariate analysis of variance and investigated for possible causal relationships by general linear models. Results: A significant difference was observed between erythrograms and global leukograms in the three families of snakes evaluated before and after treatment. The significant reduction in the heterophil: lymphocyte ratio in the Family Colubridae after treatment was noteworthy. Discussion: The results were most likely due to stress level reduction by improving thermoregulation and conversion of vitamin D during sunbathing, oral rehydration and refreshing in soaking baths, and general metabolic rates due to physical exercise. Conclusion: The results confirm the initial hypothesis, assuming that a simple but systematic treatment that included sunlight exposure and immersion hydration was efficient in reducing stress rates.

Objetivo: Avaliar a influência de banhos de sol e de imersão em água nos perfis hematológicos de serpentes cativas, antes e após a aplicação deste tratamento alternativo. Metodologia: Serpentes cativas no NUROF-UFC foram submetidas à avaliação clínica e hematológica, depois submetidas ao tratamento alternativo por cinco semanas, sendo novamente avaliadas após. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos à análise estatística multivariada (NPMANOVA e GLM) para investigação de possíveis relações causais entre o tratamento e os perfis hematológicos. Resultados: Foi observada diferença significativa entre os eritrogramas e leucogramas nas três famílias de serpentes avaliadas antes e após o tratamento. Ressalta-se a redução significativa na razão heterófilos:linfócitos na Família Colubridae após o tratamento. Discussão: A diferença estatística deveu-se provavelmente à redução nos níveis de estresse, possibilitada por aquecimento e aumento de conversão da vitamina D durante a exposição solar; reidratação oral e refrescância nos banhos de imersão, e ao recondicionamento pelo exercício físico. Conclusão: Os resultados confirmaram a hipótese inicial, admitindo que um tratamento alternativo, simples mas aplicado sistematicamente, que incluiu exposição à luz solar e hidratação por imersão em água foi eficiente em reduzir as taxas de estresse em serpentes cativas.

Snakebite incidence in rural sub-Saharan Africa might be severely underestimated.

Snakebites in sub-Saharan Africa account for 20,000 to 32,000 annual deaths. But since most data is retrieved from hospital or incomplete central databases, and many victims do not seek hospital treatment or prefer traditional remedies, the current numbers are likely underestimated. In order to reduce snakebite incidence by 50% by 2030 as targeted by World Health Organization, it is crucial to accurately quantify and understand the current rates of snakebite incidence, which can only be reliably measured through household surveys. In this study, we interviewed 1037 households in nine communities in Cabo Delgado, northern Mozambique. Our aim was to quantify true snakebite incidence and under-reporting, by comparing the total number of snakebites reported to our team during household surveys with the subset of reports that reached health centers. We additionally quantified snakebite incidence in terms of species, location of the attack, type of treatment, season, and gender of the victims. These data allow us to propose conservative extrapolations of snakebite incidence and mortality for the province of Cabo Delgado and for Mozambique. Of all snakebites reported in the surveys (N = 296), most incidents were treated exclusively by traditional doctors (N = 174; 59%) and 25% were not seen by any doctor. Most bites occurred on farms and during the rainy season. Using a conservative estimation where we assume our results to be extrapolatable for the whole of rural Mozambique, but considering snakebites in urban areas to be inexistent, we propose that in Cabo Delgado, every year at least 6124 people are victims of snakebites, of which at least 791 result in deaths. In Mozambique, we extrapolated that every year at least 69,261 people are victims of snakebite, of which at least 8950 result in death (one in eight snakebites is fatal). Our estimates are the first for Mozambique based on data retrieved in the country, and despite being an underestimation they increase snakebite incidence levels ten-fold and the number of deaths by 30-fold. Urgent and widespread surveys are needed to further assess the full extent of snakebites in sub-Saharan Africa, explore regional patterns and develop mitigation plans.

The repellent activity evaluation of the ethanolic extract of the tipi herb against the Bothrops moojeni serpents.

The serpent study involves physiological, behavioral and interaction factors with an extremely dynamic and complex environment. The relation of these animals with biodiversity is still quite preliminary, little studied and sustained by popular practices related to traditional medicine, esoteric and mystical currents. Therefore, this study proposed to know about the effect of 80% crude alcoholic extract of Petiveria alliacea L., popularly known as Tipi Herb, and its effects associated with the repellency of the Bothrops moojeni serpent. A complex of boxes was built for the observation of the snake's displacement, carried out for a total period of six days, the first three for defining the exploratory pattern and the other two for testing the alcoholic extract of Tipi, and finally on the sixth day, one cycle with the presence of a live attractant as bait. It was observed that the animal had no inhibition behavior and moved through the complex in a way like what occurs in nature and showed behavior to avoid remaining in the presence of the extract both with the presence of a live attractant or without it, preferring to move in the other compartments. The results show that this proposed tool is valid for the study of displacement of Bothrops moojeni snakes, in the same way that it added values on the importance of cerrado biome biodiversity and on the popular medicine practices of Tipi Herb, since the repellent effect on the snake was significant in the two tests performed.

Achyrocline satureioides (Lam) DC extracts acting as enzyme modulators: digestion, inflammation, and hemostasis / Extratos de Achyrocline satureioides (Lam) DC atuando como moduladores enzimáticos: digestão, inflamação e hemostasia

Achyrocline satureioides is popularly known for its richness in phenolic compounds and medicinal properties (anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and hepatoprotective). The present study aimed at broadening the knowledge about the pharmacological potential exerted by the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of A. satureioides. These extracts were characterized by HPLC and tested for their modulatory action on phospholipases A2 and proteases of snake venoms. In addition, they were tested on the activities of digestive enzymes. Snake venoms were used as tools since they have enzymes with high functional and structural homology to human enzymes. The results demonstrate that the extracts of A. satureioides act as enzymatic inhibitors or potentiators, interfering in processes related to the hemostasis, such as coagulation and thrombus dissolution. In addition, the anti-genotoxic activity and inhibitions exerted on digestive enzymes suggests their potential use in the prevention and/or treatment of several pathologies. New studies could provide information on how the compounds present in the extracts and the different enzymes interact.

A Achyrocline satureioides é popularmente conhecida por sua riqueza em compostos fenólicos e por suas propriedades medicinais (anti-inflamatória, analgésica e hepatoprotetora). No presente estudo, com o objetivo de ampliar o conhecimento sobre o potencial farmacológico exercido por esses extratos, os extratos aquoso e etanólico de A. satureioides foram caracterizados por HPLC e testados quanto à sua ação modulatória sobre as fosfolipases A2 e proteases de peçonhas de serpentes. Além disso, também foram testados em atividades de enzimas digestivas. As peçonhas de serpentes foram usadas como ferramentas por apresentarem enzimas com alta homologia funcional e estrutural às humanas. Os resultados demonstram que os extratos de A. satureioides atuam como inibidores ou potencializadores enzimáticos, interferindo em processos relacionados à hemostasia, como coagulação e dissolução do trombo. Além do mais, destacam seu potencial antigenotóxico e as inibições exercidas sobre as enzimas digestivas direcionando seu potencial de uso na prevenção e/ou tratamento de diversas patologias. Novos estudos poderão fornecer informações sobre os mecanismos de interação entre os compostos presentes nos extratos e as diferentes enzimas.

Species perceived to be dangerous are more likely to have distinctive local names.

BACKGROUND: Species with direct uses, such as sources of food, shelter, building material and medicine tend to have more specific local names. But could the same apply for species that people fear? METHODS: To address this question, here we explore the behavior and perception of species diversity and dangerousness through a survey of 1037 households in nine villages in Cabo Delgado, northern Mozambique. We compare people's knowledge of snakes with that of lizards and amphibians. RESULTS: We find that northern Mozambicans know four to five times more local names for snakes than for lizards and frogs, despite the local species richness of snakes being comparable to the diversity of lizards and frogs. We further find that local knowledge was on par with the academic literature regarding snakebite symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that fear can increase the level of specificity in naming species among indigenous communities, which could lead to biases in the mapping and protection of species that include data from citizen reports.

Snakebite Management and One Health in Asia Using an Integrated Historical, Social, And Ecological Framework.

Snakebite envenomation continues to contribute to high fatality and morbidity rates across Asia. Yet snake bite is one of many outcomes due to human-snake conflicts, which themselves are only one type of human-snake relationship among the diversity of such interactions. We propose that human-snake relationships need to be explored from a perspective integrative of history, ecology, and culture in order to adequately and holistically address snake bite. In order to contextualize this concept within a language already understood in conservation research, we characterize and develop four interconnected themes defining human-snake relationships as a social ecological system. By breaking down the multifaceted nature of human-snake relationships under a social ecological systems framework, we explore its applicability in contributing to a unified strategy, drawing from both social and natural sciences for ending the snakebite crisis.

Epidemiological study of snakebite cases in Sikkim: Risk modeling with regard to the habitat suitability of common venomous snakes.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite envenoming is listed as category 'A' Neglected Tropical Disease. To achieve the target of WHO (World Health Organization) 2019, it becomes necessary to understand various attributes associated with snakebite including community awareness, improvisation of medical facilities and to map the potential distribution of venomous snakes responsible for the bite. Hence this study is conducted in Sikkim, India to understand the epidemiology of snakebite in Sikkim. The potential distribution and risk mapping of five common venomous snakes are done for effective management of snakebite cases. METHODS AND FINDINGS: The snakebite cases registered in six district hospitals and four PHCs (Primary Health Centers) of Sikkim were collected from the year 2011 to 2018. Community survey was also conducted to supplement the data. Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM) was performed to predict the potential habitat of five common venomous snakes of Sikkim. The risk modeling of snakebite cases was done at the level of Gram Panchayat Unit (GPU) using Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) and Ordinary Linear Square (OLS) model. We found higher number of male victims inflicted with snakebite envenomation. The potential distribution of the five venomous snakes showed satisfactory mean AUC (Area under Curve) value. Both the models showed significant positive association of snakebite cases with habitat suitability of the venomous snakes. Hospital data revealed no death cases whereas community data reported 24 deaths. CONCLUSIONS: Death from snakebite reflected in community data but not in hospital data strongly indicates the people's belief in traditional medicine. Though people of Sikkim have rich traditional knowledge, in case of snakebite traditional practices may be ineffective leading to loss of life. Sensitizing people and improving medical facilities along with proper transport facilities in rural areas might significantly reduce the snakebite casualties in the state.

How beliefs in traditional healers impact on the use of allopathic medicine: In the case of indigenous snakebite in Eswatini.

Snakebite is a major public health problem in Eswatini and serious envenomations can be responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality if not treated correctly. Antivenom should be administered in hospital in case of adverse reactions and any delays due to distance, transport, costs, antivenom availability and cultural beliefs can be critical. Myths and superstition surround snakes, with illness from snakebite considered a supernatural phenomenon best treated by traditional medicine since healers can explore causes through communication with the ancestors. Traditional consultations can cause significant delays and the remedies may cause further complications. Four rural focus group discussions were held in varying geographical regions to establish why people may choose traditional medicine following snakebite. The study revealed four themes, with no apparent gender bias. These were 'beliefs and traditions', 'logistical issues', 'lack of knowledge' and 'parallel systems'. All snakes are feared, regardless of geographical variations in species distribution. Deep-seated cultural beliefs were the most important reason for choosing traditional medicine, the success of which is largely attributed to the 'placebo effect' and positive expectations. Collaboration and integration of the allopathic and traditional systems assisted by the regulation of healers and their methods could improve future treatment success. The plight of victims could be further improved with more education, lower costs and improved allopathic facilities.

Prospects and Challenges of Developing Plant-Derived Snake Antivenin Natural Products: A Focus on West Africa.

Snakebite envenomation (SBE) is an important public health issue that is now receiving renewed attention following its reclassification as a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD). Most incidences occur in rural areas of resource-limited countries, as such, timely and appropriate medical care for SBE is often inaccessible. The administration of anti-snake venom serum (ASV) is the only effective definitive treatment of SBE, but treatment failure to available ASVs is not uncommon. Emerging evidence highlights the potential of small-molecule compounds as inhibitors against toxins of snake venom. This presents an encouraging prospect to develop an alternative therapeutic option for the treatment SBE, that may be amenable for use at the point of care in resource-constraint settings. In view of the pivotal role of natural products in modern drug discovery programmes, there is considerable interest in ethno-pharmacological mining of medicinal plants and plant-derived medicinal compounds toward developing novel snake venom-neutralising therapeutics. In this review, we compile a collection of medicinal plants used in the treatment of SBE in West Africa and highlight their promise as potential botanical drugs or as sources of novel small-molecule compounds for the treatment of SBE. The challenges that must be surmounted to bring this to fruition including the need for (sub) regional collaboration have been discussed.

Nahua biocultural richness: an ethnoherpetological perspective.

BACKGROUND: Mexico harbours one of the greatest biocultural diversities of the world, where multiple social and natural elements and systems form complex networks of interactions in which both culture and nature are mutually influenced. Biocultural states and processes are studied by ethnosciences, among them ethnoherpetology, which seeks understanding material and non-material expressions of the interactions between humans, amphibians, and reptiles. Herpetofauna has been part of the magic-religious world and source of goods for Mesoamerican cultures. This study aims to document and analyse the complex body of knowledge, beliefs, and practices on these vertebrates in the Nahua culture, the factors that have influenced progressive risk and loss of culture, habitat, and species, and the potential contribution of contemporary Nahua knowledge to biocultural conservation. METHODS: Through 15 workshops with children and young people, and 16 semi-structured interviews to people 27 to 74 years old, we documented the contemporary Nahua knowledge in the communities of Aticpac and Xaltepec in the Sierra Negra, Puebla, central Mexico. Biological and ecological knowledge, use, management practices, legends, and perceptions on herpetofauna were emphasised in the study. RESULTS: We obtained an ethnoherpetological checklist, grouping species into four general classificatory categories: kohuatl (serpents), kalatl (frogs and toads), ayotsi (turtles), and ketzo (lizards and salamanders), which included 21, 10, 1, and 11 ethnocategories respectively, based on the local Nahua knowledge of herpetofauna. Serpents, used as medicine, are the most culturally relevant. Due to perceptions of danger, beliefs, and actual snake bites, the main interaction with serpents is their elimination; however, some snakes are tolerated and maintained in captivity. The remaining species of local herpetofauna recorded are tolerated. Cultural aspects of reptiles and amphibians in the Nahua worldview were documented to influence the regulation of interactions of people with these vertebrates, but for younger generations, such aspects are less frequent or absent. CONCLUSIONS: Interactions and cultural relationships between the Nahua people, amphibians and reptiles are complex, maintaining some aspects of the local worldview but also influenced by external factors and being constantly recreated and re-signified. Documenting and understanding the contemporary relations is essential to generate strategies in biocultural conservation of herpetofauna.

What are the factors influencing the aversion of students towards reptiles?

BACKGROUND: Reptiles form a paraphyletic group with significant roles for human society, including species that are considered important for food, medicinal and mystical use and as pets. Some species are considered to be aversive, whereas others are captivating among people. Aversion is an important factor which should be considered in the conservation policies of these animals. As such, here, we investigate the demographic, educational, perceptives and behavioural factors of students related to their aversion and non-conservationist attitudes directed towards different reptile species and evaluated the effect of educational exhibition of animals as a strategy of mitigating these attitudes. METHODS: The data were obtained through forms on the aversion and conservation of reptiles represented by three species, a chelonian, a snake and a lizard. The form was given in two instances, before and after a visit to a private zoo (Museu Vivo Répteis da Caatinga), where the students had contact with the aforementioned species. A total of 133 students participated in the study, among these, 43 from elementary school (21 females and 22 males), 29 from high school (16 females and 13 males), 37 from university biology students (22 females and 15 males) and 24 university mathematics students (6 females and 18 males). RESULTS: Among all evaluated species, snakes were considered to be the most aversive species. The aversion attitudes differed between the three evaluated species when correlated to age and type of university courses. However, this pattern did not differ between student sexes. Older students had a lower aversion to the chelonian compared to the younger ones, but for snakes and lizards, the aversion was high among students of all ages. The university biology students had a lower aversion compared to the university mathematics students for the three species. The recognition and handle of the tested species and previous visits to educational exhibitions of animals were negatively related to aversion. The comparative analysis of the forms applied before and after the visit to the Museu Vivo Répteis da Caatinga showed that this visit influenced the decrease of aversion, but not in non-conservationist attitudes, for which the attitude scores had always been low. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that reptile aversion varies in accordance with the taxon, being snakes the most disliked by students. The visit to the educational exhibition of animals contributed to the reduction of the observed aversion. This is especially true when the acquisition of educational information about species is associated with practical activities which includes contact with the animals. Finally, the fact that non-conservationist attitudes had been low towards all species perhaps demonstrates a conservationist tendency even for the most aversive species.

An exploratory focus group study on experiences with snakebites: health-seeking behaviour and challenges in rural communities of Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite envenoming is a long-hidden public health threat in the rural communities of Kenya. This study aimed to shed light on the health-seeking behaviour of people bitten by snakes, views on prevention measures and community needs and the consequences for snakebite patients in these areas. METHODS: Six focus group interviews were conducted in communities in the Kajiado (n=3) and Kilifi (n=3) counties. RESULTS: Traditional first-aid practices such as the use of a tourniquet and/or cutting the wound, use of a black stone and a variety of other traditional remedies were common. Challenges with transportation to health facilities and inadequately resourced facilities complicated accessing medical care. Community members voiced a need to improve access to trained healthcare workers and snakebite treatments at health facilities. CONCLUSION: While communities had high trust in evidence-based medical care, traditional treatment was often sought, causing delays in timely medical attention. Traditional practices were often used in the home environment and these were not usually administered by a traditional healer. The findings illustrate the need to combine improving the availability of effective snakebite treatment and healthcare worker training on snakebite with community education to reduce the impact of snakebite.

[Bile acid derivatives-focused chemical profiling in snake bile].

As a precious traditional Chinese medicine(TCM), snake bile has been widely used in numerous Chinese medicine prescriptions. Bile acid(BA) derivatives have been demonstrated as the primary chemical family in snake bile. In-depth chemical characterization of BAs is of great importance towards the establishment of quality standards and clarification of the effective material basis for snake bile. This study firstly employed ~1H-NMR to preliminarily analyze the chemical profiles of snake bile, an automated fraction collector was subsequently implemented to obtain the fractions-of-interest. The fraction was then concentrated and re-analyzed by LC-MS. Based on ~1H-NMR, BAs were found to be the main components of snake bile, and six BAs including CDCA, CA, TCDCA, TCA, TDCA and GCA were tentatively identified from the representative spectrum with the assistance of literature and reference compounds. Whereas the content of TCA in snake bile was too great, resulting in a great obstacle for the detection of trace components, the automated fraction collector was subsequently implemented to obtain the fractions-of-interest for LC-MS analysis. According to matching MS/MS information and retention time with reference compounds as well as database retrieval, a total of 57 BAs were detected and annotated. Because of the combination of ~1H-NMR and LC-MS platforms, the findings are beneficial for the in-depth characterization of BAs in snake bile, which provides references for the establishment of quality control and evaluation methods of snake bile.