Enantioselective Hydroxylation of Benzylic C(sp3)-H Bonds by an Artificial Iron Hydroxylase Based on the Biotin-Streptavidin Technology.

The selective hydroxylation of C-H bonds is of great interest to the synthetic community. Both homogeneous catalysts and enzymes offer complementary means to tackle this challenge. Herein, we show that biotinylated Fe(TAML)-complexes (TAML = Tetra Amido Macrocyclic Ligand) can be used as cofactors for incorporation into streptavidin to assemble artificial hydroxylases. Chemo-genetic optimization of both cofactor and streptavidin allowed optimizing the performance of the hydroxylase. Using H2O2 as oxidant, up to ∼300 turnovers for the oxidation of benzylic C-H bonds were obtained. Upgrading the ee was achieved by kinetic resolution of the resulting benzylic alcohol to afford up to >98% ee for (R)-tetralol. X-ray analysis of artificial hydroxylases highlights critical details of the second coordination sphere around the Fe(TAML) cofactor.

Artificial tethering of LC3 or p62 to organelles is not sufficient to trigger autophagy.

The retention using selective hooks (RUSH) system allows to retain a target protein fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) and a streptavidin-binding peptide (SBP) due to the interaction with a molar excess of streptavidin molecules ("hooks") targeted to selected subcellular compartments. Supplementation of biotin competitively disrupts the interaction between the SBP moiety and streptavidin, liberating the chimeric target protein from its hooks, while addition of avidin causes the removal of biotin from the system and reestablishes the interaction. Based on this principle, we engineered two chimeric proteins involved in autophagy, namely microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B (MAP1LC3B, best known as LC3) and sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1, best known as p62) to move them as SBP-GFP-LC3 and p62-SBP-GFP at will between the cytosol and two different organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Although both proteins were functional in thus far that SBP-GFP-LC3 and p62-SBP-GFP could recruit their endogenous binding partners, p62 and LC3, respectively, their enforced relocation to the ER or Golgi failed to induce organelle-specific autophagy. Hence, artificial tethering of LC3 or p62 to the surface of the ER and the Golgi is not sufficient to trigger autophagy.

An allosteric switch-based hairpin for label-free chemiluminescence detection of ribonuclease H activity and inhibitors.

To assay enzyme activities and screen its inhibitors, we demonstrated a novel label-free chemiluminescent (CL) aptasensor for the sensitive detection of RNase H activity based on hairpin technology. The specific hairpin structure was a DNA-RNA chimeric strand, which contained a streptavidin aptamer sequence and a blocked RNA sequence. RNase H could specifically recognize and cleave the RNA sequence of the DNA-RNA hybrid stem, liberating the streptavidin aptamer which could be accumulated by streptavidin-coated magnetic microspheres (SA-MP). Then the CL signal was generated due to an instantaneous derivatization reaction between the specific CL reagent 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl-glyoxal (TMPG) and the guanine (G) nucleotides in the SA aptamer. This novel assay method exhibited a good linear relationship in the range of 0.1-10 U mL-1 under the optimized conditions. Our results suggested that the developed system was a promising platform for monitoring the RNase H activity and showed great potential in biomedical studies and drug screening.

A cell-penetrating artificial metalloenzyme regulates a gene switch in a designer mammalian cell.

Complementing enzymes in their native environment with either homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts is challenging due to the sea of functionalities present within a cell. To supplement these efforts, artificial metalloenzymes are drawing attention as they combine attractive features of both homogeneous catalysts and enzymes. Herein we show that such hybrid catalysts consisting of a metal cofactor, a cell-penetrating module, and a protein scaffold are taken up into HEK-293T cells where they catalyze the uncaging of a hormone. This bioorthogonal reaction causes the upregulation of a gene circuit, which in turn leads to the expression of a nanoluc-luciferase. Relying on the biotin-streptavidin technology, variation of the biotinylated ruthenium complex: the biotinylated cell-penetrating poly(disulfide) ratio can be combined with point mutations on streptavidin to optimize the catalytic uncaging of an allyl-carbamate-protected thyroid hormone triiodothyronine. These results demonstrate that artificial metalloenzymes offer highly modular tools to perform bioorthogonal catalysis in live HEK cells.

Determination of Affinity and Residence Time of Potent Drug-Target Complexes by Label-free Biosensing.

Prolonged drug-target occupancy has become increasingly important in lead optimization, and biophysical assays that measure residence time are in high demand. Here we report a practical label-free assay methodology that provides kinetic and affinity measurements suitable for most target classes without long preincubations and over comparatively short sample contact times. The method, referred to as a "chaser" assay, has been applied to three sets of unrelated kinase/inhibitor panels in order to measure the residence times, where correlation with observed efficacy was suspected. A lower throughput chaser assay measured a residence time of 3.6 days ±3.4% (95% CI) and provided single digit pM sensitivity. A higher throughput chaser methodology enabled a maximum capacity of 108 compounds in duplicate/day with an upper residence time limit of 9 h given an assay dissociation time of 34 min.

Discordant Analytical Results Caused by Biotin Interference on Diagnostic Immunoassays in a Pediatric Hospital.

Recent studies have reported that biotin interferes with certain immunoassays. In this study, we evaluated the analytical interference of biotin on immunoassays that use streptavidin-biotin in our pediatric hospital. We tested the effect of different concentrations of biotin (1.5-200 ng/ml) on TSH, Prolactin, Ferritin, CK-MB, ß-hCG, Troponin I, LH, FSH, Cortisol, Anti-HAV antibody (IgG and IgM), assays on Ortho Clinical Diagnostic Vitros 5600 Analyzer. Biotin (up to 200 ng/mL) did not significantly affect Troponin I and HAV assays. Biotin (up to 12.5 ng/ml) resulted in <10% bias in CK-MB, ß-hCG, AFP, Cortisol, Ferritin assays and biotin >6.25 ng/mL significantly affected TSH (>20% bias) assay. Prolactin was significantly affected even at low levels (Biotin 1.5 ng/mL). Thus, we recommend educating physicians about biotin interference in common immunoassays and adding an electronic disclaimer.

Characterization of ATPase Activity of Free and Immobilized Chromatophore Membrane Vesicles of Rhodobacter sphaeroides.

The intracytoplasmic membrane of Rhodobacter sphaeroides readily vesiculates when cells are lysed. The resulting chromatophore membrane vesicle (CMV) contains the photosynthetic machineries to synthesize ATP by ATPase. The light-dependent ATPase activity of CMV was lowered in the presence of O2, but the activity increased to the level observed under anaerobic condition when the reaction mixture was supplemented with ascorbic acid (≥0.5 mM). Cell lysis in the presence of biotinyl cap phospholipid (bcp) resulted in the incorporation of bcp into the membrane to form biotinylated CMV (bCMV), which binds to streptavidin resin at a ratio of approximately 24 µg bacteriochlorophyll a/ml resin. The ATPase activity of CMV was not affected by biotinylation, but approximately 30% of the activity was lost by immobilization to resin. Interestingly, the remaining 70% of ATPase activity stayed constant during 7-day storage at 4°C. On the contrary, the ATPase activity of bCMV without immobilization gradually decreased to approximately 40% of the initial level in the same comparison. Thus, the ATPase activity of CMV is sustainable after immobilization, and the immobilized bCMV can be used repeatedly as an ATP generator.

Controlled self-assembly of alginate microgels by rapidly binding molecule pairs.

Controlled self-assembly of cell-encapsulating microscale polymeric hydrogels (microgels) could be advantageous in a variety of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Here, a method of assembly by chemical modification of alginate polymer with binding pair molecules (BPM) was explored. Alginate was modified with several types of BPM, specifically biotin and streptavidin and click chemistry compounds, and fabricated into 25-30 µm microgels using a microfluidic platform. These microgels were demonstrated to self-assemble under physiological conditions. By combining complementary microgels at a high ratio, size-defined assemblages were created, and the effects of BPM type and assembly method on the number of microgels per assemblage and packing density were determined. Furthermore, a magnetic process was developed to separate assemblages from single microgels, and allow formation of multilayer spheroids. Finally, cells were singly encapsulated into alginate microgels and assembled using BPM-modified alginate, suggesting potential applications in regenerative medicine.

High-dose biotin therapy leading to false biochemical endocrine profiles: validation of a simple method to overcome biotin interference.

BACKGROUND: High-dose biotin therapy is beneficial in progressive multiple sclerosis (MS) and is expected to be adopted by a large number of patients. Biotin therapy leads to analytical interference in many immunoassays that utilize streptavidin-biotin capture techniques, yielding skewed results that can mimic various endocrine disorders. We aimed at exploring this interference, to be able to remove biotin and avoid misleading results. METHODS: We measured free triiodothyronine (fT3), free thyroxine (fT4), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), parathyroid homrone (PTH), 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin, C-peptide, cortisol (Roche Diagnostics assays), biotin and its main metabolites (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry) in 23 plasmas from MS patients and healthy volunteers receiving high-dose biotin, and in 39 biotin-unsupplemented patients, before and after a simple procedure (designated N5) designed to remove biotin by means of streptavidin-coated microparticles. We also assayed fT4, TSH and PTH in the 23 high-biotin plasmas using assays not employing streptavidin-biotin binding. RESULTS: The biotin concentration ranged from 31.7 to 1160 µg/L in the 23 high-biotin plasmas samples. After the N5 protocol, the biotin concentration was below the detection limit in all but two samples (8.3 and 27.6 µg/L). Most hormones results were abnormal, but normalized after N5. All results with the alternative methods were normal except two slight PTH elevations. In the 39 biotin-unsupplemented patients, the N5 protocol did not affect the results for any of the hormones, apart from an 8.4% decrease in PTH. CONCLUSIONS: We confirm that most streptavidin-biotin hormone immunoassays are affected by high biotin concentrations, leading to a risk of misdiagnosis. Our simple neutralization method efficiently suppresses biotin interference.

False biochemical diagnosis of hyperthyroidism in streptavidin-biotin-based immunoassays: the problem of biotin intake and related interferences.

Immunoassays are now commonly used for hormone measurement, in high throughput analytical platforms. Immunoassays are generally robust to interference. However, endogenous analytical error may occur in some patients; this may be encountered in biotin supplementation or in the presence of anti-streptavidin antibody, in immunoassays involving streptavidin-biotin interaction. In these cases, the interference may induce both false positive and false negative results, and simulate a seemingly coherent hormonal profile. It is to be feared that this type of errors will be more frequently observed. This review underlines the importance of keeping close interactions between biologists and clinicians to be able to correlate the hormonal assay results with the clinical picture.

Fed-batch production and secretion of streptavidin by Hansenula polymorpha: Evaluation of genetic factors and bioprocess development.

Streptavidin - a protein secreted by the filamentous bacterium Streptomyces avidinii - is applied in a variety of methods, leading to numerous studies on its heterologous production. Development and characterization of a novel expression system for streptavidin genes by Hansenula polymorpha is described utilizing different target gene variants along with the two methanol-inducible promoters PMOX and PFMD. Extracellular product concentrations were higher for cultivation at 30 instead of 37°C. The best performing strain carrying the full-length streptavidin gene under control of PFMD was characterized in the bioreactor applying a synthetic medium and oxygen-controlled feeding of glucose. Derepression resulted in an extracellular concentration of 1.31±0.07µM of tetrameric streptavidin after 48h (27.3nMh(-1)). Feeding of glycerol improved biomass formation, but lowered the product concentration. By combining derepression and methanol induction the final extracellular streptavidin concentration increased to 11.42±0.22µM (approx. 751mgL(-1)), yielding a productivity of 52.5nMh(-1). Despite supplementing biotin the proportion of biotin-blocked binding sites in the supernatant dropped from 54.4±5.0 % after 18h to 17.2±6.5 % towards the end of glucose feeding to a final value of 1.1±3.8 %, indicating a highly bioactive product. Thus, H. polymorpha proved to be a suitable host for the production of streptavidin.

Constitutive production and efficient secretion of soluble full-length streptavidin by an Escherichia coli 'leaky mutant'.

Due to its various applications the protein streptavidin is a highly interesting target for heterologous production. This study focuses on different Escherichia coli-based constructs targeting a high-level expression and secretion of streptavidin to the medium. The effect of various promoters, variants of the target gene, leader sequences and host strains on expression and secretion into the culture broth was analyzed. Constitutive production of full-length streptavidin fused with the leader sequence of the bglA gene from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens by the periplasmic 'leaky mutant' E. coli JW1667-5 (Δlpp-752:kan) at 30°C generated the highest yield of the conditions tested, surpassing the extracellular concentration of a conventional T7-based expression system. Supplementation of the medium by the non-ionic surfactants Triton(®) X-100 and X-45 led to an improved secretion of the protein to the culture supernatant. Tetrameric concentrations of streptavidin of 2790±166nM were reached in shake flasks at a productivity of 49.6nMh(-1). Optimization of conditions led to a successful transfer to the bioreactor, yielding a maximal concentration of 2608±169nM and a productivity of 65.2nMh(-1) in fed-batch operation. The proportion of biotin-blocked binding sites of 8.3±4.3% indicated a highly bioactive product.

Lentiavidins: Novel avidin-like proteins with low isoelectric points from shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes).

A biotin-binding protein with a low isoelectric point (pI), which minimizes electrostatic non-specific binding to substances other than biotin, is potentially valuable. To obtain such a protein, we screened hundreds of mushrooms, and detected strong biotin-binding activity in the fruit bodies of Lentinula edodes, shiitake mushroom. Two cDNAs, each encoding a protein of 152 amino acids, termed lentiavidin 1 and lentiavidin 2 were cloned from L. edodes. The proteins shared sequence identities of 27%-49% with other biotin-binding proteins, and many residues that directly associate with biotin in streptavidin were conserved in lentiavidins. The pI values of lentiavidin 1 and lentiavidin 2 were 3.9 and 4.4, respectively; the former is the lowest pI of the known biotin-binding proteins. Lentiavidin 1 was expressed as a tetrameric protein with a molecular mass of 60 kDa in an insect cell-free expression system and showed biotin-binding activity. Lentiavidin 1, with its pI of 3.9, has a potential for broad applications as a novel biotin-binding protein.

Artificial Ligands of Streptavidin (ALiS): Discovery, Characterization, and Application for Reversible Control of Intracellular Protein Transport.

Artificial ligands of streptavidin (ALiS) with association constants of ∼10(6) M(-1) were discovered by high-throughput screening of our chemical library, and their binding characteristics, including X-ray crystal structure of the streptavidin complex, were determined. Unlike biotin and its derivatives, ALiS exhibits fast dissociation kinetics and excellent cell permeability. The streptavidin-ALiS system provides a novel, practical compound-dependent methodology for repeated reversible cycling of protein localization between intracellular organella.

Peptide nucleic acid probe for protein affinity purification based on biotin-streptavidin interaction and peptide nucleic acid strand hybridization.

We describe a new method for protein affinity purification that capitalizes on the high affinity of streptavidin for biotin but does not require dissociation of the biotin-streptavidin complex for protein retrieval. Conventional reagents place both the selectively reacting group (the "warhead") and the biotin on the same molecule. We place the warhead and the biotin on separate molecules, each linked to a short strand of peptide nucleic acid (PNA), synthetic polymers that use the same bases as DNA but attached to a backbone that is resistant to attack by proteases and nucleases. As in DNA, PNA strands with complementary base sequences hybridize. In conditions that favor PNA duplex formation, the warhead strand (carrying the tagged protein) and the biotin strand form a complex that is held onto immobilized streptavidin. As in DNA, the PNA duplex dissociates at moderately elevated temperature; therefore, retrieval of the tagged protein is accomplished by a brief exposure to heat. Using iodoacetate as the warhead, 8-base PNA strands, biotin, and streptavidin-coated magnetic beads, we demonstrate retrieval of the cysteine protease papain. We were also able to use our iodoacetyl-PNA:PNA-biotin probe for retrieval and identification of a thiol reductase and a glutathione transferase from soybean seedling cotyledons.

Direct attachment of nanoparticle cargo to Salmonella typhimurium membranes designed for combination bacteriotherapy against tumors.

Nanoparticle technology is an emerging approach to resolve difficult-to-manage internal diseases. It is highly regarded, in particular, for medical use in treatment of cancer due to the innate ability of certain nanoparticles to accumulate in the porous environment of tumors and to be toxic to cancer cells. However, the therapeutic success of nanoparticles is limited by the technical difficulty of fully penetrating and thus attacking the tumor. Additionally, while nanoparticles possess seeming-specificity due to the unique physiological properties of tumors themselves, it is difficult to tailor the delivery of nanoparticles or drugs in other models, such as use in cardiac disease, to the specific target. Thus, a need for delivery systems that will accurately and precisely bring nanoparticles carrying drug payloads to their intended sites currently exists. Our solution to this engineering challenge is to load such nanoparticles onto a biological "mailman" (a novel, nontoxic, therapeutic strain of Salmonella typhimurium engineered to preferentially and precisely seek out, penetrate, and hinder prostate cancer cells as the biological delivery system) that will deliver the therapeutics to a target site. In this chapter, we describe two methods that establish proof-of-concept for our cargo loading and delivery system by attaching nanoparticles to the Salmonella membrane. The first method (Subheading 1.1) describes association of sucrose-conjugated gold nanoparticles to the surface of Salmonella bacteria. The second method (Subheading 1.2) biotinylates the native Salmonella membrane to attach streptavidin-conjugated fluorophores as example nanoparticle cargo, with an alternative method (expression of membrane bound biotin target sites using autodisplay plasmid vectors) that increases the concentration of biotin on the membrane surface for streptavidin-conjugated nanoparticle attachment. By directly attaching the fluorophores to our bacterial vector through biocompatible, covalent, and stable bonds, the coupling of bacterial and nanoparticle therapeutic approaches should synergistically lead to improved tumor destruction.

Biotin-decorated silica coated PbS nanocrystals emitting in the second biological near infrared window for bioimaging.

Nanoparticles (NPs) emitting in the second biological near infrared (NIR) window of the electromagnetic spectrum have been successfully synthesized by growing a silica shell on the hydrophobic surface of OLEA/TOP PbS nanocrystals (NCs), by means of a reverse microemulsion approach, and subsequently decorated with biotin molecules. The fabrication of very uniform and monodisperse NPs, formed of SiO2 shell coated single core PbS NCs, has been demonstrated by means of a set of complementary optical and structural techniques (Vis-NIR absorption and photoluminescence spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy) that have highlighted how experimental parameters, such as PbS NC and silica precursor concentration, are crucial to direct the morphology and optical properties of silica coated PbS NPs. Subsequently, the silica surface of the core-shell NPs has been grafted with amino groups, in order to achieve covalent binding of biotin to NIR emitting silica coated NPs. Finally the successful reaction with a green-fluorescent labelled streptavidin has verified the molecular recognition response of the biotin molecules decorating the PbS@SiO2 NP surface. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and ζ-potential techniques have been used to monitor the hydrodynamic diameter and colloidal stability of both PbS@SiO2 and biotin decorated NPs, showing their high colloidal stability in physiological media, as needed for biomedical applications. Remarkably the obtained biotinylated PbS@SiO2 NPs have been found to retain emission properties in the 'second optical window' of the NIR region of the electromagnetic spectrum, thus representing attractive receptor-targeted NIR fluorescent probes for in vivo tumour imaging.

Kinetic mechanism of DNA translocation by the RSC molecular motor.

ATP-dependent nucleosome repositioning by chromatin remodeling enzymes requires the translocation of these enzymes along the nucleosomal DNA. Using a fluorescence stopped-flow assay we monitored DNA translocation by a minimal RSC motor and through global analysis of these time courses we have determined that this motor has a macroscopic translocation rate of 2.9 bp/s with a step size of 1.24 bp. From the complementary quantitative analysis of the associated time courses of ATP consumption during DNA translocation we have determined that this motor has an efficiency of 3.0 ATP/bp, which is slightly less that the efficiency observed for several genetically related DNA helicases and which likely results from random pausing by the motor during translocation. Nevertheless, this motor is able to exert enough force during translocation to displace streptavidin from biotinylated DNA. Taken together these results are the necessary first step for quantifying both the role of DNA translocation in nucleosome repositioning by RSC and the efficiency at which RSC couples ATP binding and hydrolysis to nucleosome repositioning.

Application of Bio-Layer Interferometry for the analysis of protein/liposome interactions.

The development of biosensor technologies for the investigation of biomolecular interactions has markedly advanced over the last years. One promising biosensor platform, the Bio-Layer Interferometry (BLI), was developed by ForteBio with the main focus to qualify and quantify protein/protein interactions in research and routine applications. Here, a method to characterize protein/liposome binding interactions based on the biophysical principles of this platform is described. Three different liposome formulations and the protein hormone, recombinant human erythropoietin (rh-Epo) were used as models in the test system. Rh-Epo was immobilized on disposable optical fiber streptavidin (SA) biosensor tips and binding of different liposome formulations under certain conditions was measured. The assay performance was evaluated, followed by calculating the kinetic rate and affinity constants. The results showed that all liposome formulations formed extremely stable complexes with the immobilized protein. Nevertheless, liposome specific differences in binding affinities were determined. Furthermore, a liposome concentration dependent binding pattern was demonstrated. The combination of simple sample preparation, the opportunity of automation with high throughput in an acceptable time range and excellent reproducibility, makes this assay suitable for basic research as well as for drug discovery and drug screening to estimate drug/membrane interactions.

Highly sensitive fluorescence detection of avidin/streptavidin with an optical interference mirror slide.

This paper presents highly sensitive fluorescence detections of avidin and streptavidin using an optical interference mirror (OIM) slide consisting of a plane mirror covered with an optical interference layer. Compared with a common glass slide, the OIM slide can enhance the fluorescence from a dye by more than 100-fold. We fabricated an OIM slide by depositing an optical interference layer of Al(2)O(3) on an Ag mirror. To enhance the fluorescence maximally, the optimal thickness of the Al(2)O(3) layer was estimated from optical interference theory. For detections of protein, avidin/streptavidin labeled with fluorescein, Cy3, and Cy5 were detected with biotin immobilized on an OIM slide with the optimal Al(2)O(3) thickness. We achieved a sensitivity improvement of more than 50-fold, comparing with a glass slide. Such a high degree of improvement would be a significant contribution to further progress in biomedical research and medical diagnostics.