Interactions of the major effective components in Shengmai formula with breast cancer resistance protein at the cellular and vesicular levels.

Shengmai Formula (SMF) is one of the traditional Chinese medicine representative formulas and is widely used for the treatment of cardio- and cerebrovascular disease. Previous studies demonstrated that the major effective ingredients in SMF can interact with each other based on some uptake transporters. However, the role of the efflux transporter breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) in these interactions involving SMF remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interactions of the major active components of SMF with BCRP and the compatibility mechanism of these complex components in SMF based on BCRP. We selected 4 main fractions, including ginseng total saponins (GTS), ophiopogon total saponins (OTS), ophiopogon total flavonoids (OTF), and fructus schisandrae total lignans (STL), and 12 bioactive components, including ginsenosides Re, Rd, Rb1, and Rg1, ophiopogonins D and D', methylophiopogonanones A and B, schizandrins A and B, and schizandrols A and B to explore the interactions of SMF with BCRP in LLC-PK1 and LLC-PK1/BCRP cells and BCRP membrane vesicles. The results showed that ginsenosides Re and Rg1, methylophiopogonanone B, and schizandrin A can be transported by BCRP into LLC-PK1/BCRP cells. Schisandrol B exhibited a markedly inhibitory effect on the transport function of BCRP and can significantly inhibit the uptake of methylophiopogonanone B and schizandrin A into LLC-PK1/BCRP cells. In "Inside-Out" BCRP membrane vesicles, BCRP mediated the transport of ginsenosides Re and Rg1, methylophiopogonanone B, and schizandrin A, with Km values of 111.9 ±â€¯31.26 µM, 82.01 ±â€¯16.72 µM, 57.06 ±â€¯8.789 µM, and 37.19 ±â€¯6.512 µM, respectively. GTS, STL, ginsenosides Rd and Rb1, and schisandrol B were potent inhibitors of BCRP and showed different degrees of inhibition on the transport of ginsenosides Re and Rg1, methylophiopogonanone B, and schizandrin A via BCRP. In conclusion, GTS, STL, ginsenosides Rd and Rb1, and schizandrol B are potential inhibitors of BCRP. Ginsenosides Re and Rg1, methylophiopogonanone B, and schizandrin A are potential substrates of BCRP, and their transport, which is mediated by BCRP, may be inhibited by potential inhibitors in SMF. There are potential interactions of these main effective components of SMF at the cellular and vesicular levels that are mediated by BCRP. The interplay of these bioactive components based on BCRP may be an important compatibility mechanism in SMF.

The novel antibiotic rhodomyrtone traps membrane proteins in vesicles with increased fluidity.

The acylphloroglucinol rhodomyrtone is a promising new antibiotic isolated from the rose myrtle Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, a plant used in Asian traditional medicine. While many studies have demonstrated its antibacterial potential in a variety of clinical applications, very little is known about the mechanism of action of rhodomyrtone. Preceding studies have been focused on intracellular targets, but no specific intracellular protein could be confirmed as main target. Using live cell, high-resolution, and electron microscopy we demonstrate that rhodomyrtone causes large membrane invaginations with a dramatic increase in fluidity, which attract a broad range of membrane proteins. Invaginations then form intracellular vesicles, thereby trapping these proteins. Aberrant protein localization impairs several cellular functions, including the respiratory chain and the ATP synthase complex. Being uncharged and devoid of a particular amphipathic structure, rhodomyrtone did not seem to be a typical membrane-inserting molecule. In fact, molecular dynamics simulations showed that instead of inserting into the bilayer, rhodomyrtone transiently binds to phospholipid head groups and causes distortion of lipid packing, providing explanations for membrane fluidization and induction of membrane curvature. Both its transient binding mode and its ability to form protein-trapping membrane vesicles are unique, making it an attractive new antibiotic candidate with a novel mechanism of action.

Functional characterization of the chloroplast ferric chelate oxidoreductase enzyme.

Iron (Fe) has an essential role in the biosynthesis of chlorophylls and redox cofactors, and thus chloroplast iron uptake is a process of special importance. The chloroplast ferric chelate oxidoreductase (cFRO) has a crucial role in this process but it is poorly characterized. To study the localization and mechanism of action of cFRO, sugar beet (Beta vulgaris cv Orbis) chloroplast envelope fractions were isolated by gradient ultracentrifugation, and their purity was tested by western blotting against different marker proteins. The ferric chelate reductase (FCR) activity of envelope fractions was studied in the presence of NAD(P)H (reductants) and FAD coenzymes. Reduction of Fe(III)-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid was monitored spectrophotometrically by the Fe(II)-bathophenanthroline disulfonate complex formation. FCR activity, that is production of free Fe(II) for Fe uptake, showed biphasic saturation kinetics, and was clearly associated only to chloroplast inner envelope (cIE) vesicles. The reaction rate was > 2.5 times higher with NADPH than with NADH, which indicates the natural coenzyme preference of cFRO activity and its dependence on photosynthesis. FCR activity of cIE vesicles isolated from Fe-deficient plants also showed clear biphasic kinetics, where the KM of the low affinity component was elevated, and thus this component was down-regulated.

Polyphenols differentially inhibit degranulation of distinct subsets of vesicles in mast cells by specific interaction with granule-type-dependent SNARE complexes.

Anti-allergic effects of dietary polyphenols were extensively studied in numerous allergic disease models, but the molecular mechanisms of anti-allergic effects by polyphenols remain poorly understood. In the present study, we show that the release of granular cargo molecules, contained in distinct subsets of granules of mast cells, is specifically mediated by two sets of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) proteins, and that various polyphenols differentially inhibit the formation of those SNARE complexes. Expression analysis of RBL-2H3 cells for 11 SNARE genes and a lipid mixing assay of 24 possible combinations of reconstituted SNAREs indicated that the only two active SNARE complexes involved in mast cell degranulation are Syn (syntaxin) 4/SNAP (23 kDa synaptosome-associated protein)-23/VAMP (vesicle-associated membrane protein) 2 and Syn4/SNAP-23/VAMP8. Various polyphenols selectively or commonly interfered with ternary complex formation of these two SNARE complexes, thereby stopping membrane fusion between granules and plasma membrane. This led to the differential effect of polyphenols on degranulation of three distinct subsets of granules. These results suggest the possibility that formation of a variety of SNARE complexes in numerous cell types is controlled by polyphenols which, in turn, might regulate corresponding membrane trafficking.

Dual control of cytosolic metals by lysosomal transporters in lobster hepatopancreas.

This study describes the membrane transport mechanisms used by lobster (Homarus americanus) hepatopancreatic epithelial lysosomes to accumulate and sequester heavy metals from the cytosol, and thereby aid in the regulation of these ions entering the animal from dietary constituents. The present investigation extends previous work describing lysosomal metal uptake by cation exchange with protons and suggests that a second, parallel, lysosomal transport process involving metal-thiol conjugates may work in conjunction with the cation antiporter to control cytoplasmic metal concentrations. Transport of (65)Zn(2+) by lysosomal membrane vesicles (LMV) incubated in 1 mmol l(-1) glutathione (GSH) was not significantly different from metal transport in the absence of the tripeptide. However, preloading LMV with 1 mmol l(-1) alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG), and then incubating in a medium containing 1 mmol l(-1) GSH, more than doubled metal uptake, compared with vesicles equilibrated with chloride or possessing an outwardly directed chloride gradient. Kinetic analysis of lysosomal (65)Zn(2+) influx as a function of zinc concentration, in vesicles containing 1 mmol l(-1) AKG and incubated in 1 mmol l(-1) GSH, revealed the presence of a sigmoidal, low affinity, high capacity carrier process transporting the metal into the organelle. These data indicated the possible presence of an organic anion exchanger in lobster lysosomal membranes. Western blot analysis of LMV with a rabbit anti-rat OAT1 antibody showed the presence of an orthologous OAT1-like protein (approximate molecular mass of 80 kDa) signal from these membranes. These results, and those published previously, suggest the occurrence of two metal transporters on hepatopancreatic membranes, a high affinity, low capacity cation antiporter and a low affinity, high capacity organic anion exchanger. Together these two systems have the potential to regulate cytoplasmic metals over a wide concentration range.

Nephrotoxicity of uranyl acetate: effect on rat kidney brush border membrane vesicles.

Since the Gulf war exposure to depleted uranium, a known nephrotoxic agent, there is a renewed interest in the toxic effects of uranium in general and its mechanism of nephrotoxicity which is still largely unknown in particular. In order to investigate the mechanism responsible for uranium nephrotoxicity and the therapeutic effect of urine alkalization, we utilized rat renal brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV). Uranyl acetate (UA) caused a decrease in glucose transport in BBMV. The apparent K (i) of uranyl was 139+/-30 microg uranyl/mg protein of BBMV. Uranyl at 140 microg/mg protein of BBMV reduced the maximal capacity of the system to transport glucose [V (max) 2.2+/-0.2 and 0.96+/-0.16 nmol/mg protein for control and uranyl treated BBMV (P<0.001), respectively] with no effect on the apparent K (m) (1.54+/-0.33 and 1.54+/-0.51 mM for control, and uranyl treated BBMV, respectively). This reduction in V(max) is at least partially due to a decrease in the number of sodium-coupled glucose transporters as apparent from the reduction in phlorizin binding to the uranyl treated membranes, V (max) was reduced from 247+/-13 pmol/mg protein in control BBMV to 119+/-3 pmol/mg protein in treated vesicles (P<0.001). The pH of the medium has a profound effect on the toxicity of UA on sodium-coupled glucose transport in BBMV: higher toxicity at neutral pH (around pH 7.0), and practically no toxicity at alkaline pH (7.6). This is the first report showing a direct inhibitory dose and pH dependent effect of uranyl on the glucose transport system in isolated apical membrane from kidney cortex.

Tonoplast vesicles of Beta vulgaris storage root show functional aquaporins regulated by protons.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Water is crucial for plant development and growth, and its transport pathways inside a plant are an ongoing topic for study. Plants express a large number of membrane intrinsic proteins whose role is now being re-evaluated by considering not only the control of the overall plant water balance but also in adaptation to environmental challenges that may affect their physiology. In particular, we focused our work on water movements across the root cell TP (tonoplast), the delimiting membrane of the vacuole. This major organelle plays a central role in osmoregulation. RESULTS: An enriched fraction of TP vesicles from Beta vulgaris (red beet) storage roots obtained by a conventional method was used to characterize its water permeability properties by means of the stopped-flow technique. The preparation showed high water permeability (485 microm x s(-1)), consistent with values reported in the literature. The water permeability was strongly blocked by HgCl(2) (reduced to 16%) and its energy activation was low. These observations allow us to postulate the presence of functional water channels in this preparation. Moreover, Western-blot analysis demonstrated the presence of a tonoplast intrinsic protein. With the purpose of studying the regulation of water channels, TP vesicles were exposed to different acidic pH media. When the pH of a medium was low (pH 5.6), the water permeability exhibited a 42% inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings prove that although almost all water channels present in the TP vesicles of B. vulgaris root are sensitive to HgCl(2), not all are inhibited by pH. This interesting selectivity to acidification of the medium could play a role in adapting the water balance in the cell-to-cell pathway.

Alternate energy-dependent pathways for the vacuolar uptake of glucose and glutathione conjugates.

Through the development and application of a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based procedure for measuring the transport of complex organic molecules by vacuolar membrane vesicles in vitro, it is shown that the mechanism of uptake of sulfonylurea herbicides is determined by the ligand, glucose, or glutathione, to which the herbicide is conjugated. ATP-dependent accumulation of glucosylated chlorsulfuron by vacuolar membrane vesicles purified from red beet (Beta vulgaris) storage root approximates Michaelis-Menten kinetics and is strongly inhibited by agents that collapse or prevent the formation of a transmembrane H(+) gradient, but is completely insensitive to the phosphoryl transition state analog, vanadate. In contrast, ATP-dependent accumulation of the glutathione conjugate of a chlorsulfuron analog, chlorimuron-ethyl, is incompletely inhibited by agents that dissipate the transmembrane H(+) gradient but completely abolished by vanadate. In both cases, however, conjugation is essential for net uptake because neither of the unconjugated parent compounds are accumulated under energized or nonenergized conditions. That the attachment of glucose to two naturally occurring phenylpropanoids, p-hydroxycinnamic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid via aromatic hydroxyl groups, targets these compounds to the functional equivalent of the transporter responsible for chlorsulfuron-glucoside transport, confirms the general applicability of the H(+) gradient dependence of glucoside uptake. It is concluded that H(+) gradient-dependent, vanadate-insensitive glucoside uptake is mediated by an H(+) antiporter, whereas vanadate-sensitive glutathione conjugate uptake is mediated by an ATP-binding cassette transporter. In so doing, it is established that liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry affords a versatile high-sensitivity, high-fidelity technique for studies of the transport of complex organic molecules whose synthesis as radiolabeled derivatives is laborious and/or prohibitively expensive.

Differences in endocytosis and intracellular sorting of ricin and viscumin in 3T3 cells.

Ricin and viscumin are heterodimeric protein toxins. Their A-chain is enzymatically active and removes an adenine residue from the 28S rRNA, the B-chain has lectin activity and binds to terminal galactose residues of cell surface receptors. The toxins reveal a high degree of identity in their amino acid sequences. Nevertheless, uptake into 3T3 cells occurs via different receptors and endocytotic pathways. This has been revealed by enzyme linked based analysis of ricin competition with viscumin, and by fluorochrome-labeled toxins (viscumin-FITC, ricin-Alexa 568), which were added simultaneously or separately to living cells. Then the uptake was followed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Ricin immediately is delivered to the tubular and vesicular structures of endosomes in the perinuclear area while viscumin becomes endocytosed into small vesicles preferentially in the cell periphery. After about 60 min both these toxins may be found in tubo-vesicular structures of endosomes where the sorting process can directly be observed. The fact that this sorting takes place is a strong argument for the assumption that the toxins are bound to membrane proteins, either to their original receptors or to other proteins inside the endosomal compartment exhibiting terminal galactose residues. The toxins are biologically fully active as has been proven by binding and by toxicity experiments, thus the differences in targeting do not arise from labeling.