Crude extract of Euphorbia formosana induces apoptosis of DU145 human prostate cancer cells acts through the caspase-dependent and independent signaling pathway.

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in men and the second highest contributor of male cancer mortality. The crude extract of Euphorbia formosana (CEEF) has been used for treatment of different diseases but the cytotoxic effects of CEEF on human cancer cells have not been reported. The purpose of the present experiments was to determine effects of CEEF on cell cycle distribution and induction of apoptosis in DU145 human prostate cancer cells in vitro. Contrast-phase microscope was used for examining cell morphological changes. Flow cytometric assays were used for cell viability, cell cycle, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, and Ca2+ production and mitochondria membrane potential (ΔΨm ). Western blotting was used for examining protein expression of cell cycle and apoptosis associated proteins. Real-time PCR was used for examining mRNA levels of caspase-3, -8, and -9, AIF, and Endo G. Confocal laser microscope was used to examine the translocation of AIF, Endo G, and cytochrome in DU145 cells after CEEF exposure. CEEF-induced cell morphological changes, decreased the percentage of viable cells, and induced S phase arrest and apoptosis in DU145 cells. Furthermore, CEEF promoted RAS and Ca2+ production and reduced ΔΨm levels. Real-time QPCR confirmed that CEEF promoted the mRNA expression of caspase-3 and -9, AIF and Endo G and we found that AIF and Endo G and cytochrome c were released from mitochondria. Taken together, CEEF-induced cytotoxic effects via ROS production, induced S phase arrest and induction of apoptosis through caspase-dependent and independent and mitochondria-dependent pathways in DU245 cancer cells. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1600-1611, 2016.

Retinoic acid receptor agonist activity of naturally occurring diterpenes.

Recent accumulating evidence indicates that all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) may be useful for preventing or treating inflammation, allergy, and autoimmune diseases, despite its severe side effects. In this study, screening of 99 crude drugs for retinoic acid receptor (RAR) ligands by luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that the methanol extract of Aralia cordata Rhizoma most effectively activates the transcriptional activity of RARα. Pimaradienoic acid (ent-pimara-8(14),15-dien-19-oic acid) was subsequently isolated as the constituent capable of activating RAR. Pimaric acid and abietic acid, which have similar structures to pimaradienoic acid, were also found to be novel RAR agonists, although abietic acid only slightly activated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. These three natural RAR agonists with diterpene structures, while structurally different from ATRA, were able to increase the mRNA levels of the constitutive androstane receptor in HepG2 cells, induce F9 cell differentiation followed by Cyp26a1 mRNA expression, and differentiate HL-60 cells via RAR activation in a different manner from ATRA. These results demonstrate that some diterpenes exist as naturally occurring RAR agonists and that the differences in chemical structure between ATRA and these diterpenes may induce distinct gene activation and a specific cellular response.

Crude extract of Euphorbia formosana inhibits the migration and invasion of DU145 human prostate cancer cells: The role of matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 inhibition via the MAPK signaling pathway.

Prostate cancer is a common worldwide health problem in males with a poor prognosis due in part to tumor invasion and migration. The crude extract of Euphorbia formosana (CEEF) has been used for the treatment of numerous diseases, however, its effects on the migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells have yet to be examined. In the present study, we investigated the effects of CEEF on the migration and invasion of DU145 human prostate cancer cells in vitro. The wound healing assay and the Matrigel-uncoated migration assay were used to examine the migration of cancer cells. Western blotting was used to examine the levels of proteins associated with migration and invasion, and gelatin zymography was used to examine the secretion levels of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and -9 (MMP­2/9) from DU145 cells following exposure to CEEF. The results indicated that CEEF suppressed the migration and invasion of DU145 prostate cancer cells and that these effects are exerted in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. CEEF inhibited the ERK1/2, p38, JNK, SOS1, PKC, PI3K and MMP-2/9 protein expression in DU145 cells. The results demonstrated that CEEF suppressed the migration and invasion of DU145 cells through inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway resulting in the inhibition of MMP-2/9 in DU145 human prostate cancer cells.

AKT serine/threonine protein kinase modulates baicalin-triggered autophagy in human bladder cancer T24 cells.

Baicalin is one of the major compounds in the traditional Chinese medicinal herb from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. We investigated the molecular mechanisms of cell autophagy induced by baicalin in human bladder cancer T24 cells. Baicalin inhibited cell survival as shown by MTT assay and increased cell death by trypan blue exclusion assay in a concentration-dependent manner. Baicalin did not induce apoptotic cell death in T24 cells by TUNEL and caspase-3 activity assay. Baicalin induced the acidic vesicular organelle cell autophagy marker, manifested by acridine orange (AO) and monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining and cleavage of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3). The protein expression levels of the Atg 5, Atg 7, Atg 12, Beclin-1 and LC3-II were upregulated in T24 cells after baicalin treatment. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyl-adenine (an inhibitor of class III phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase; 3-MA) reduced the cleavage of LC3 in T24 cells after baicalin treatment. Furthermore, protein expression levels of phospho-AKT (Ser473) and enzyme activity of AKT were downregulated in T24 cells after baicalin treatment. In conclusion, baicalin triggered cell autophagy through the AKT signaling pathway in T24 cells.

Bufalin increases sensitivity to AKT/mTOR-induced autophagic cell death in SK-HEP-1 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Bufalin is the major component of Chan-Su (a traditional Chinese medicine, TCM) extracts from the venom of Bufo bufo gargarizan. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacological mechanisms of cell cycle arrest and autophagic cell death induced by bufalin in SK-HEP-1 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro. Bufalin inhibited cell survival by MTT assay and increased cell death by trypan blue exclusion assay in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, bufalin induced G2/M phase arrest by reducing CDK1 activity. Bufalin triggered DNA fragmentation and apoptotic cell death in SK-HEP-1 cells by DNA gel electrophoresis, TUNEL and caspase-3 activity assay, while bufalin induced autophagic cell death by double-membrane vacuoles (transmission electron microscopy, TEM), acidic vesicular organelles (acridine orange staining) and cleavage of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3). Protein expression levels of cyclin A and B, CDK1, phospho-CDK1 (Thr161), Cdc25c, phospho-Cdc25c (Ser198), phospho-AKT (Thr308), phospho-AKT (Ser473), phospho­mTOR (Ser2481) were downregulated. In contrast, protein expression levels of the Chk1, Wee1, LC3-II, Beclin-1, Atg 5, Atg 7 and Atg 12 were upregulated in SK-HEP-1 cells after bufalin treatment. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine (an inhibitor of class III phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase; 3-MA) or bafilomycin A1 (an inhibitor of the vacuolar proton pump of lysosomes and endosomes) reduced the effect of bufalin on cell viability and enhanced the effect of bufalin on apoptosis. In conclusion, bufalin triggered autophagic cell death and G2/M phase arrest through the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in SK-HEP-1 cells. Our findings showed that bufalin may be potentially efficacious in the treatment of human hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatoprotective effect of the ethanol extract of Vitis thunbergii on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute hepatotoxicity in rats through anti-oxidative activities.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Vitis thunbergii var. taiwaniana are traditionally used for the treatment of diarrhea, fracture and injury, jaundice, and hepatitis in Taiwan. AIM OF THE STUDY: The hepatoprotective activity of its plant extracts seems to be been associated with its antioxidant activity. This paper aims to investigate the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant effects of the ethanol extract of Vitis thunbergii (EVT). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In HPLC analysis, the fingerprint chromatogram of EVT was established. Antioxidant ability of EVT was investigated by employing several established in vitro methods. In vivo antioxidant activity was tested against CCl(4)-induced toxicity in mice. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were detected in the blood to indicate hepatic injury. Product of lipid peroxidation (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and reduced glutathione (GSH) contents were evaluated for oxidative stress in hepatic injury. Moreover, histopathological observation was assayed for the degree of hepatic injury. RESULTS: EVT exhibited strong antioxidant ability in vitro. After oral administration of EVT significantly decreased ALT and AST, and ameliorated the oxidative stress in hepatic tissue and increased the activity of CAT, SOD, GPx, and GSH. Serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), and nitric oxide (NO) were decreased in the group treated with CCl(4) plus EVT. Western blotting revealed that EVT blocked protein expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in CCl(4)-treated rats, significantly. Histopathological examination of livers showed that EVT reduced fatty degeneration, cytoplasmic vacuolization and necrosis in CCl(4)-treated rats. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that EVT possesses antioxidant effects in vitro and hepatoprotective effect on acute liver injuries induced by CCl(4)in vivo, and the results suggested that the effect of EVT against CCl(4)-induced liver damage is related to its antioxidant properties.

Puerariae flos alleviates metabolic diseases in Western diet-loaded, spontaneously obese type 2 diabetic model mice.

Puerariae flos extract (PFE) has been reported to have many effects, including preventing the development of hangovers, liver protective effects, and an estrogenic effect. In addition, some papers reported that PFE is effective against metabolic diseases, with hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects. However, the mechanism underlying such effects remains unclear. For the purpose of clarifying the effect of PFE on metabolic diseases related to the accumulation of visceral fat and to determine the mechanism of such action, TSOD mice, a multifactorial genetic disease animal model that spontaneously develops various metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, were given a Western diet (WTD) as an environmental factor to prepare a disease model (TSOD-WTD). When TSOD mice were loaded with WTD, it was confirmed that metabolic diseases such as obesity and abnormal glucose/lipid metabolism are aggravated. In contrast, PFE treatment to TSOD-WTD mice was shown to suppress body weight gain and visceral fat accumulation, alleviated the abnormal glucose tolerance and hyperinsulinemia, as well as causing an increase in blood adiponectin. Furthermore, the suppression of liver enlargement was observed in PFE-treated mice, with suppression of fatty degeneration and anti-inflammatory effect. In addition, to clarify the mechanism of the hyperlipidemia-alleviating effects in the liver, we investigated the effect of PFE on the expression of genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. PFE was associated with a significant increase in gene expression for cholesterol synthesis rate-limiting enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, cholesterol catabolization enzyme Cyp7A1, bile salt export pump adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter B11, and low-density lipoprotein receptor involved in cholesterol uptake. The above results suggest that PFE acts to alleviate the effects of various metabolic diseases based on the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue, including obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia, with the promotion of catabolization/excretion of cholesterol in the liver being a key mechanism of action.

A naturally occurring rexinoid, honokiol, can serve as a regulator of various retinoid x receptor heterodimers.

We investigated the properties of honokiol, a natural rexinoid, as a regulator of retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimers with various partner nuclear receptors (NRs), in comparison with those of the synthetic rexinoid bexarotene. Honokiol alone was hardly capable of activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ/RXR, RXR/liver X receptor (LXR), and RXR/vitamin D receptor (VDR) heterodimers, whereas it effectively potentiated their activation by agonists for the partner NRs of the RXR heterodimers. These findings were further supported by increased mRNA and protein levels for the respective NR target genes. Bexarotene alone activated PPARγ/RXR and RXR/LXR heterodimers, but not RXR/VDR heterodimers, and facilitated the activation of all three RXR heterodimers by the respective PPARγ, LXR, and VDR agonists. When the potencies of honokiol and bexarotene were compared, honokiol was able to serve as a subsidiary agonist in the activation of RXR heterodimers in a similar manner to bexarotene. However, it seemed to potentiate the activation of PPARγ/RXR heterodimers by the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone more efficiently than bexarotene, and was a less potent RXR agonist than bexarotene. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that honokiol is a rexinoid that possesses distinct properties from bexarotene, and mainly has subsidiary roles in the activation of RXR heterodimers by potentiating the activation of RXR heterodimers by agonists for the partner NRs.

Antioxidant, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory activities of Xanthii Fructus extract.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Xanthii seeds commonly called Cang-Erzi were used as a traditional Chinese medicine for treating sinusitis, headache due to rheumatism and skin pruritus. AIM OF THE STUDY: In order to evaluate the actions of this plant, studies were performed on antioxidant, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory activities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The aqueous extract of Xanthii Fructus (AXF) was evaluated in mice for anti-inflammatory activity using carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model. The antinociceptive activity of AXF was evaluated by writhing and formalin tests. Antioxidant properties were assayed in terms of antioxidant activity by scavenging abilities on 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS), reducing activity and liposome protection. In addition, the total phenolic content was determined with spectrophotometric method. RESULTS: AXF exhibited significant radical scavenging and reducing activity. And oral treatment with AXF elicited inhibitory activity on acetic acid effect and reduced the formalin effect at the late-phase. In the anti-inflammatory test, AXF inhibited the development of paw edema induced by λ-carrageenan (Carr). AXF decreased the paw edema at the fifth hour after Carr administration, and increased the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in the liver tissue and decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the edema paw. AXF decreased the level of serum nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α after Carr injection and AXF decreased the levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expressions in paw edema at the fifth hour. CONCLUSIONS: AXF shows antioxidant, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory activities, supporting the folkloric usage of the plant to treat various inflammatory diseases.

Hepatoprotective effect of shidagonglao on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride.

This study investigates the hepatoprotective activity of ethanol extract from Shidagonglao roots (SDGL(EtOH)). The hepatoprotective effect of SDGL(EtOH) (20, 100 and 500 mg/kg) was analyzed on carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4))-induced acute liver injury. Rats pretreated orally with SDGL(EtOH) (100 and 500 mg/kg) and silymarin (200 mg/kg) for 3 consecutive days prior to the administration of a single dose of 50% CCl(4) (0.10 ml/100 g of bw, ip) significantly prevented the increases in the activities of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in CCl(4)-treated rats. Histological analysis also showed that SDGL(EtOH) (100 and 500 mg/kg) and silymarin reduced the incidence of liver lesions including vacuole formation, neutrophil infiltration and necrosis of hepatocytes induced by CCl(4) in rats. Moreover, the SDGL(EtOH) (100 and 500 mg/kg) increased the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GRd) and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) level in liver, as compared to those in the CCl(4)-treated group. Furthermore, SDGL(EtOH) (100 and 500 mg/kg) and silymarin attenuated the increased levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in serum and nitric oxide (NO) in liver as compared to the CCl(4)-treated group. The hepatoprotective mechanisms of SDGL(EtOH) are likely related to inhibition of TNF-alpha, MDA and NO productions via increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GPx and GRd). These experimental results suggest that SDGL(EtOH) can attenuate CCl(4)-induced acute liver injury in rats.

Separation and isolation methods for analysis of the active principles of Sho-saiko-to (SST) oriental medicine.

Sho-saiko-to (SST) was introduced into Japan as an oriental classical medicine from China approximately 1500 years ago, and it is currently the most representative Kampo medicine (traditional Japanese medicine). SST is manufactured in Japan as an ethical drug on a modern industrial scale in which the quality of ingredients is standardized with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulation. SST is widely used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis. Experimental and clinical studies including multi-center, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies have demonstrated the various pharmacological effects of SST. SST is prepared from the hot water extraction of seven raw materials, therefore many kinds of constituents are included. Three-dimensional (3D) HPLC analysis is useful for obtaining many kinds of constituents, especially low molecular ultraviolet (UV) quenching compounds, contained in SST as well as its fractions. Fingerprint pattern provided by 3D HPLC analysis makes possible to identify the overall-viewing of SST. Databases of UV spectra of the components of medicinal herbs obtained by reversed-phase (RP) HPLC using a photodiode array (PDA) and fingerprint patterns of crude drugs made by 3D HPLC analysis facilitate the identification, analysis and quality of herbal drugs. Studies using both PDA HPLC and an amino acid analysis with a fluorometric detector have found that SST contains fifteen major low molecular compounds (i.e. baicalin, wogonin-7-O-glucuronide, liquiritin, their three aglycons, liquiritin apioside, glycyrrhizin, saikosaponin b1, saikosaponin b2, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, (6)-gingerol, (6)-shogaol and arginine). These compounds have various pharmacological actions, and are assumed to be responsible, at least partly, for the pharmacological effects of SST. Although there have only been a few investigations on high molecular compounds with pharmacological actions contained in SST, several kinds of polysaccharides have been isolated from constituent herbs of SST. This review paper summarizes analytical methods of separation, isolation and identification of compounds with biological activities from SST, which is a mixture drug of medicinal herbs. Accordingly, this paper would not focus on methods of separation, isolation and analysis of particular compounds from each constituent herb of SST.