Hepatoprotective Constituents of Macrocybe gigantea (Agaricomycetes) from India.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most frequent, chronic liver diseases worldwide and currently has no specific therapy. Our previous study indicated the anti-NAFLD effect of Macrocybe gigantea (Massee) Pegler & Lodge in high-fat diet-fed animals. This study aimed to isolate and identify the active hepatoprotective constituents from M. gigantea using fatty acid induced steatotic HepG2 cells as in vitro model. The effect of the test materials on the viability of HepG2 cells was analyzed using MTT assay. The HepG2 cells were treated with a mixture of palmitate-oleate to induce steatosis; after 24 h of treatment with the test materials, the intracellular lipid content was estimated using Oil Red O staining. The levels of transaminases were also estimated in the spent media. Bioassay-guided isolation of hepatoprotective constituents from M. gigantea yielded two compounds viz., ergosterol and linoleic acid; their structures were confirmed using spectroscopic data. Among these two compounds, ergosterol significantly lowered the levels of intracellular triglyceride content of fatty acid induced HepG2 cells; it also lowered the leakage of transaminases. The reductions caused by linoleic acid were not statistically significant at the tested concentrations. Detailed investigations on efficacy and safety of these compounds and M. gigantea might yield some useful leads for the management of NAFLD.

Antihyperlipidemic effect of iridoid glycoside deacetylasperulosidic acid isolated from the seeds of Spermacoce hispida L. - A traditional antiobesity herb.

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE: The interest on herbal health supplements for obesity is increasing globally. Our previous ethnobotanical survey in Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, India indicated the use of Spermacoce hispida L. seeds for the treatment of obesity. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study was aimed to validate the traditional claim and to identify the antihyperlipidemic principle in the seeds of Spermacoce hispida using bioassay guided fractionation method. METHODS: Bioassay monitored fractionation of the aqueous extract from Spermacoce hispida seeds was carried out using triton WR 1339 induced hyperlipidemic animals. It yielded deacetylasperulosidic acid (DAA) as the active ingredient. Pharmacokinetic properties of DAA were predicted using DataWarrior and SwissADME tools. In vitro antiobesity and antihyperlipidemic effects of DAA were evaluated in 3T3L1 preadipocytes and HepG2 cells, respectively. The chronic antihyperlipidemic efficacy of DAA was evaluated in high fat diet fed rats. RESULTS: DAA did not show any mutagenic and tumorigenic properties. It bound with PPARα with comparable ligand efficiency as fenofibrate. The treatment with DAA significantly lowered the proliferation of matured adipocytes, but not preadipocytes. The treatment of steatotic HepG2 cells with DAA significantly decreased the LDH leakage by 43.03% (P < 0.05) at 50 µM concentration. In triton WR 1339 induced hyperlipidemic animals, the treatment with 50 mg/kg dose significantly lowered the TC, TG and LDL-c levels by 40.27, 46.00 and 63.65% respectively. In HFD fed animals, the treatment at 10 mg/kg decreased BMI and AC/TC ratio without altering SRBG. It also improved serum lipid, transaminases and phosphatases levels of HFD fed animals. The treatment lowered adipocyte hypertrophy and steatosis of hepatocytes. CONCLUSION: This preliminary report supported the traditional use of Spermacoce hispida for the treatment of obesity. Further detailed investigations on the long term safety, efficacy and molecular mode of action of Spermacoce hispida and DAA will throw more light on their usefulness for the management of obesity.

Effect of two andrographolide derivatives on cellular and rodent models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

The prevalence of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is increasing and there is an increasing interest in natural products to treat NAFLD. This study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective effect of andrographolide and two of its derivatives; in one the OH group at C-14 was removed and in the other OH groups at C-3 and C-19 were protected. Andrographolide (AN) was isolated from the aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata Wall. Isoandrographolide (IAN) and 3,19-acetonylidene andrographolide (ANA) were derivatized from AN. Drug likeness of the compounds was studied using DataWarrior. The effect of the compounds in ameliorating hepatic steatosis and lipotoxicity was assessed using palmitate-oleate induced steatotic HepG2 cell lines. In vivo efficacy of the compounds was assessed by using HFD fed rats. IAN showed comparatively high drug score and low irritability than AN. MTT assay indicated that the treatment with IAN had comparatively less toxicity than AN and ANA to HepG2 cells. The treatment with IAN significantly reduced the lipid accumulation and the leakage of LDH and transaminases, while the treatments with AN and ANA did not prohibit the leakage. In the in vivo experiment, the treatment with IAN showed comparatively better hepatoprotection by reducing the serum lipid, transaminases and ALP levels than with AN and ANA. Our results showed that IAN could be a promising lead to treat NAFLD with comparatively low toxicity and improved efficacy.

Larvicidal and Pupicidal Activities of Alizarin Isolated from Roots of Rubia cordifolia Against Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae).

The mosquitocidal activities of different fractions and a compound alizarin from the methanol extract of Rubia cordifolia roots were evaluated on larvae and pupae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Larvae and pupae were exposed to concentrations of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm for fractions and 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 ppm for compound. After 24 h, the mortality was assessed and the LC50 and LC90 values were estimated for larvae and pupae. Among the 23 fractions screened, fraction 2 from the methanol extract of R. cordifolia showed good mosquitocidal activity against C. quinquefasciatus and A. aegypti. LC50 and LC90 values of fraction 2 were 3.53 and 7.26 ppm for C. quinquefasciatus and 3.86 and 8.28 ppm for A. aegypti larvae, and 3.76 and 7.50 ppm for C. quinquefasciatus and 3.92 and 8.05 ppm for A. aegypti pupae, respectively. Further, the isolated compound alizarin presented good larvicidal and pupicidal activities. LC50 and LC90 values of alizarin for larvae were 0.81 and 3.86 ppm against C. quinquefasciatus and 1.31 and 6.04 ppm for A. aegypti larvae, respectively. Similarly, the LC50 and LC90 values of alizarin for pupae were 1.97 and 4.79 ppm for C. quinquefasciatus and 2.05 and 5.59 ppm for A. aegypti pupae, respectively. The structure of the isolated compound was identified on the basis of spectroscopic analysis and compared with reported spectral data. The results indicated that alizarin could be used as a potential larvicide and pupicide.

Genome-wide analysis correlates Ayurveda Prakriti.

The practice of Ayurveda, the traditional medicine of India, is based on the concept of three major constitutional types (Vata, Pitta and Kapha) defined as "Prakriti". To the best of our knowledge, no study has convincingly correlated genomic variations with the classification of Prakriti. In the present study, we performed genome-wide SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) analysis (Affymetrix, 6.0) of 262 well-classified male individuals (after screening 3416 subjects) belonging to three Prakritis. We found 52 SNPs (p ≤ 1 × 10(-5)) were significantly different between Prakritis, without any confounding effect of stratification, after 10(6) permutations. Principal component analysis (PCA) of these SNPs classified 262 individuals into their respective groups (Vata, Pitta and Kapha) irrespective of their ancestry, which represent its power in categorization. We further validated our finding with 297 Indian population samples with known ancestry. Subsequently, we found that PGM1 correlates with phenotype of Pitta as described in the ancient text of Caraka Samhita, suggesting that the phenotypic classification of India's traditional medicine has a genetic basis; and its Prakriti-based practice in vogue for many centuries resonates with personalized medicine.

DNA methylation analysis of phenotype specific stratified Indian population.

BACKGROUND: DNA methylation and its perturbations are an established attribute to a wide spectrum of phenotypic variations and disease conditions. Indian traditional system practices personalized medicine through indigenous concept of distinctly descriptive physiological, psychological and anatomical features known as prakriti. Here we attempted to establish DNA methylation differences in these three prakriti phenotypes. METHODS: Following structured and objective measurement of 3416 subjects, whole blood DNA of 147 healthy male individuals belonging to defined prakriti (Vata, Pitta and Kapha) between the age group of 20-30years were subjected to methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) and microarray analysis. After data analysis, prakriti specific signatures were validated through bisulfite DNA sequencing. RESULTS: Differentially methylated regions in CpG islands and shores were significantly enriched in promoters/UTRs and gene body regions. Phenotypes characterized by higher metabolism (Pitta prakriti) in individuals showed distinct promoter (34) and gene body methylation (204), followed by Vata prakriti which correlates to motion showed DNA methylation in 52 promoters and 139 CpG islands and finally individuals with structural attributes (Kapha prakriti) with 23 and 19 promoters and CpG islands respectively. Bisulfite DNA sequencing of prakriti specific multiple CpG sites in promoters and 5'-UTR such as; LHX1 (Vata prakriti), SOX11 (Pitta prakriti) and CDH22 (Kapha prakriti) were validated. Kapha prakriti specific CDH22 5'-UTR CpG methylation was also found to be associated with higher body mass index (BMI). CONCLUSION: Differential DNA methylation signatures in three distinct prakriti phenotypes demonstrate the epigenetic basis of Indian traditional human classification which may have relevance to personalized medicine.

Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic properties of vasicine acetate synthesized from vasicine isolated from Adhatoda vasica L.

Adhatoda vasica (L.) (Acanthaceae) is used in the indigenous system of medicine in India. The alkaloid Vasicine was isolated from ethanolic extract of the leaves of A. vasica using column chromatography. Vasicine acetate was obtained by acetylation of Vasicine. Vasicine acetate exhibited good zone of inhibition against bacteria: 10 mm against E. aerogenes, 10 mm against S. epidermidis, and 10 mm against P. aeruginosa. Vasicine acetate showed minimum inhibitory concentration values against bacteria: M. luteus (125 µg/mL), E. aerogenes (125 µg/mL), S. epidermidis (125 µg/mL), and P. aeruginosa (125 µg/mL). The radical scavenging activity of Vasicine acetate was the maximum at 1000 µg/mL (66.15%). The compound showed prominent cytotoxic activity in vitro against A549 lung adenocarcinoma cancer cell line. Quantification of Vasicine and Vasicine acetate by HPLC-DAD analysis showed their contents to be 0.2293% and 0.0156%, respectively, on dry weight basis of the leaves. Vasicine acetate could be probed further in drug discovery programme.

Bioassay guided fractionation and identification of active anti-inflammatory constituent from Delonix elata flowers using RAW 264.7 cells.

CONTEXT: Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (Fabaceae) has been used in the Indian traditional medicine system to treat rheumatism and inflammation. AIM: To assess the anti-inflammatory effect of Delonix elata flowers and to isolate the active principle. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The prompt anti-inflammatory constituent was isolated from Delonix elata flower extracts using bioassay guided fractionation in liposaccharide (LPS) stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. The anti-inflammatory activity of extracts/fractions/sub-fractions/compounds (10, 25, and 50 µg/ml) was evaluated by estimating the levels of nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and IL-1ß after 24 h of LPS induction (1 µg/ml). The isolated active compound was subjected to NMR, IR, and UV analyses for structure determination. RESULTS: In an attempt to search for anti-inflammatory constituents, the active pure principle was isolated and crystallized as a white compound from Delonix elata flowers methanol extract. This active compound (50 µg/ml) decreased the release of inflammatory mediators levels such as NO (0.263 ± 0.03 µM), TNFα (160.20 ± 17.57 pg/ml), and IL-1ß (285.79 ± 15.16 pg/ml) significantly (p < 0.05); when compared to the levels of NO (0.774 ± 0.08 µM), TNFα (501.71 ± 25.14 pg/ml), and IL-1ß (712.68 ± 52.25 pg/ml) from LPS-stimulated macrophage cells. The active compound was confirmed as hesperidin with NMR, IR, and UV spectroscopy data. This is the first report of this compound from Delonix elata flowers. CONCLUSION: The findings of the study support the traditional use of Delonix elata flowers to treat inflammation.

Determinants of prakriti, the human constitution types of Indian traditional medicine and its correlation with contemporary science.

BACKGROUND: Constitutional type of an individual or prakriti is the basic clinical denominator in Ayurveda, which defines physical, physiological, and psychological traits of an individual and is the template for individualized diet, lifestyle counseling, and treatment. The large number of phenotype description by prakriti determination is based on the knowledge and experience of the assessor, and hence subject to inherent variations and interpretations. OBJECTIVE: In this study we have attempted to relate dominant prakriti attribute to body mass index (BMI) of individuals by assessing an acceptable tool to provide the quantitative measure to the currently qualitative ayurvedic prakriti determination. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study is cross sectional, multicentered, and prakriti assessment of a total of 3416 subjects was undertaken. Healthy male, nonsmoking, nonalcoholic volunteers between the age group of 20-30 were screened for their prakriti after obtaining written consent to participate in the study. The prakriti was determined on the phenotype description of ayurvedic texts and simultaneously by the use of a computer-aided prakriti assessment tool. Kappa statistical analysis was employed to validate the prakriti assessment and Chi-square, Cramer's V test to determine the relatedness in the dominant prakriti to various attributes. RESULTS: We found 80% concordance between ayurvedic physician and software in predicting the prakriti of an individual. The kappa value of 0.77 showed moderate agreement in prakriti assessment. We observed a significant correlations of dominant prakriti to place of birth and BMI with Chi-square, P < 0.01 (Cramer's V-value of 0.156 and 0.368, respectively). CONCLUSION: The present study attempts to integrate knowledge of traditional ayurvedic concepts with the contemporary science. We have demonstrated analysis of prakriti classification and its association with BMI and place of birth with the implications to one of the ways for human classification.

In vivo and in vitro immunomodulatory potential of swertiamarin isolated from Enicostema axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal that acts as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Swertiamarin is a secoiridoid glycoside found in Enicostema axillare (Lam) A. Raynal, a medicinal plant used as a depurative in the Indian system of traditional medicine. The present study evaluated the immunomodulatory activity of isolated swertiamarin. In vivo immunomodulatory activity of swertiamarin (2, 5, and 10 mg/kg b.w.) was evaluated in a model of sheep red blood cells (SRBC) by assessing its effect on organ weight, hemagglutinating antibody titer (HA), plaque-forming cells (PFC), quantitative hemolysis of SRBC, and delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH). In vitro immunomodulatory potential was studied on isolated splenocytes, neutrophils, and peritoneal macrophages. In silico immunomodulatory effects were evaluated by docking of swertiamarin on proinflammatory cytokines to confirm its potential. In in vivo studies, the animals treated with swertiamarin showed a significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in antibody titer, plaque-forming cells, and also in weight of the thymus and spleen. A decreased response to DTH reaction was recorded with the treatment of swertiamarin. In in vitro studies, treatment with swertiamarin modulated the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression of IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL-4 significantly (P ≤ 0.05) and also favored Th2-mediated response on concanavalin A (Con A)-induced splenocytes. The compound inhibited the release of free radicals significantly (P ≤ 0.05) in phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-induced neutrophils and also ameliorated the mRNA and protein expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophages. In in silico, the best docked pose of swertiamarin with the target proteins (TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6) was confirmed that swertiamarin acted as an anti-inflammatory mediator.

Petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degradation and naphthalene metabolism in Streptomyces sp. (ERI-CPDA-1) isolated from oil contaminated soil.

Petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degrading Streptomyces sp. isolate ERI-CPDA-1 was recovered from oil contaminated soil in Chennai, India. The degradation efficiencies were examined by GC-FID and the results showed that the isolate could remove 98.25% diesel oil, 99.14% naphthalene and 17.5% phenanthrene in 7 days at 30°C (0.1%). ERI-CPDA-1 was able to degrade naphthalene, phenanthrene and diesel oil and grow on petrol, diesel, kerosene, benzene, pyridine, methanol, ethanol, cyclohexane, tween-80, xylene, DMSO and toluene using them as sole carbon source. Effects of environmental condition on degradation of hydrocarbons (diesel oil, naphthalene and phenanthrene) were also studied at different pH, NaCl, temperature, concentration and incubation time. Degradation pathway for naphthalene has been proposed. Degradation metabolites were identified using GC-MS analysis of ethyl acetate extract of the cell free culture. The degradation products detected were benzaldehyde, catechol, phenylacetic acid and protocatechuic acid.

Protective effect of Premna tomentosa extract (L. verbanacae) on acetaminophen-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in rats.

Allurement of herbs as health beneficial foods (physiologically functional foods) and as a source material for the development of new drugs, has led to greater furtherance in the study of herbal medicines during recent years. Plant extracts are being utilized to treat a wide variety of diseases like hepatotoxicity. Premna tomentosa is one such medicinal plant used widely in Indian ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of liver disorders. This study appraised the effectiveness of P. tomentosa leaf extract in protecting the liver against mitochondrial damage induced by acetaminophen, since mitochondrial injury has been investigated as a potential initiator of hepatotoxicity. Normal Wistar strain rats were pre-treated with P. tomentosa extract (750 mg/kg, orally) for 15 days and then intoxicated with acetaminophen (640 mg/kg, orally). Mitochondria were isolated from liver of experimental animals and assessed for the levels of lipid peroxide products, GSH and mitochondrial enzymes (isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-keto glutarate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, NADH dehydrogenase and cytochrome-C-oxidase). The levels of Lipid peroxidation products were increased and the levels of the other assessed parameters were significantly decreased in hepatotoxicity induced animals. Whereas, the levels were brought back to normal in P. tomentosa pre-treated rats, which shows the protective effect of the extract against mitochondrial damage. Presence of anti-oxidant compound D-limonene (58%) in P. tomentosa leaves, which is known to enhance conjugation of toxic metabolites by maintaining liver GSH concentrations may explain the hepatoprotective property of the extract.

Protective effect of Premna tomentosa (L. Verbenaceae) extract on membrane-bound phosphatases and inorganic cations transport in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity rats.

Hepatic injury elicits intracellular stress that leads to peroxidation of membrane lipids accompanied by alteration of structural and functional characteristics of membrane, which affect the activities of membrane-bound ATPases. The present study appraised the membrane protective effect of Premna tomentosa, a hepatoprotective drug used in Indian traditional medicine. Wistar strain rats were pre-treated with Premna tomentosa extract (750 mg/kg, orally) for 15 days, 24 h prior to administration of acetaminophen (640 mg/kg, orally). During acetaminophen intoxication, the levels of membrane-bound enzymes were significantly decreased, total ATPase (1.63-fold), Mg(2+)ATPase (1.9-fold), Ca(2+)ATPase (1.33-fold) and Na(+)K(+)ATPase (1.73-fold) which was accompanied by changes in the levels of inorganic cations N+, K+ and Ca2+. These alterations were prevented by Premna tomentosa extract pre-treatment, which shows that Premna tomentosa supplementation could exert a beneficial effect against liver injury-induced membrane damage. The potential of the plant might be credited to the presence of antioxidant compound limonene in the plant.

Antinociceptive and hypnotic effects of Premna tomentosa L. (Verbenaceae) in experimental animals.

Medicinal plants are believed to be an important source of new chemical substances with potential therapeutic effects. The research into plants with alleged folklore use as pain relievers should therefore be viewed as a fruitful and logical research strategy in the search of new analgesic drugs. In the present inquiry, antinociceptive effects of Premna tomentosa (PT) leaf extract (in methanol) were explored in experimental animals by acetic acid-induced writhing, tail flick and tail clip tests. Oral administration of PT extract at different doses (100, 200, 400 and 500 mg/kg) led to significant antinociceptive effects. The extract was also tested for hypnotic effects. Treatment with extracts at different doses (100, 200, 400 and 500 mg/kg) decreased the locomotor activity and potentiated the pentobarbitone-induced sleep time. The responses were dose-dependent. On the basis of the present finding, we can conclude that PT possesses antinociceptive and hypnotic activities.

Protective role of Bacopa monniera on morphine-induced brain mitochondrial enzyme activity in rats.

Alcoholic extract of Bacopa monniera was tested for its protective role on morphine-induced brain mitochondrial enzyme status in rats. The level of the brain mitochondrial enzymes was significantly lower in the morphine-treated group when compared with control animals. These enzymes were maintained at normal level when Bacopa extract was administered orally at a dose of 40 mg/kg, 2 h before the administration of morphine.

Antimicrobial and phytochemical studies of Swertia corymbosa.

The aqueous, methanol, chloroform and hexane extracts of Swertia corymbosa were tested (in vitro) for their antimicrobial efficiency. Maximum inhibitory activity was noticed against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi.

Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies of Begonia malabarica.

Phytochemical investigation of the various extracts of the leaves of Begonia malabarica Lam. (Begoniaceae) resulted in the isolation and identification of six known compounds, viz. friedelin, epi-friedelinol, beta-sitosterol, luteolin, quercetin and beta-sitosterol-3-beta-D-glucopyranoside. The aqueous and organic solvent extracts were also tested against ten human pathogenic bacteria and four fungal strains by the agar-well diffusion method. All the extracts were devoid of antifungal activity against the tested fungi. The hexane extract did not show any activity. The aqueous extracts showed activity against the Gram-negative bacteria except Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The chloroform and methanol extracts showed activity against all the tested bacteria. The study supported the claim of the usefulness of the plant in respiratory tract infections and also suggests its use in diarrhoea and skin diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria.

Phytochemical and antimicrobial studies on Drynaria quercifolia.

Friedelin, epifriedelinol, beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, beta-sitosterol 3-beta-D-glucopyranoside, and naringin were isolated from the dried rhizome of Drynaria quercifolia. The methanol extract showed broad and concentration-dependent antibacterial activity.

Protective role of Bacopa monniera on morphine induced hepatotoxicity in rats.

The protective effect of Bacopa monniera on morphine induced liver antioxidant levels was studied in rats. Oral administration of alcohol extracts of Bacopa monniera induced a significant hepatoprotective effect. In the morphine treated group, a significant increase of lipid peroxidation and a significant decrease in liver antioxidant enzyme levels were observed. Simultaneous administration of morphine and Bacopa extract prevented these alterations. The results of this study showed that Bacopa monniera alcohol extract exerted a hepatoprotective effect against morphine induced liver toxicity.

Distribution of U-Th nuclides in the riverine and coastal environments of the tropical southwest coast of India.

A reconnaissance study has been made on the distribution of 238U, 234U, 232Th and 230Th in soils, water, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and bottom sediments in the Kali river basin around Kaiga, its estuarine region and the adjacent Arabian Sea to obtain the baseline data of U-Th series nuclides in view of the commissioning of nuclear power reactors at Kaiga, near Karwar, on the southwest coast of India. Drainage basin soils developed over greywackes (the dominant litho-unit upstream) are lower in 238U/Al and 232Th/Al ratios by factors of 3-5 in comparison with those developed over tonalitic gneisses (the dominant litho-unit downstream). The dominance of the former type of soils is reflected in the composition of river-bottom sediments derived from the upstream drainage basin during the monsoon. The 232Th in bottom sediments tends to increase towards the estuarine and coastal areas, presumably due to deposition of heavy minerals and onshore transport of coastal sediments into the estuary. The dissolved U in the Kali river is low (0.001-0.02 microg/l) when compared to the major Indian rivers as the Kali river flows through U-poor greywackes. Thus, the input of dissolved U to the Kali estuary is dominated by sea water. Although there is some evidence for the removal of dissolved U at low salinity during estuarine mixing, its behaviour is conservative in the lower estuary (at higher salinities). The removal rate of dissolved U from the Kali river basin is similar to that reported from other tropical river basins. The U flux from all the west-flowing rivers of Peninsular India is estimated at 26.3 x 10(6) g/yr to the Arabian Sea which is about 2% of the flux from the Himalayan rivers to the Bay of Bengal.