RESUMEN
Despite decades of research, the roles of climate and humans in driving the dramatic extinctions of large-bodied mammals during the Late Quaternary period remain contentious. Here we use ancient DNA, species distribution models and the human fossil record to elucidate how climate and humans shaped the demographic history of woolly rhinoceros, woolly mammoth, wild horse, reindeer, bison and musk ox. We show that climate has been a major driver of population change over the past 50,000 years. However, each species responds differently to the effects of climatic shifts, habitat redistribution and human encroachment. Although climate change alone can explain the extinction of some species, such as Eurasian musk ox and woolly rhinoceros, a combination of climatic and anthropogenic effects appears to be responsible for the extinction of others, including Eurasian steppe bison and wild horse. We find no genetic signature or any distinctive range dynamics distinguishing extinct from surviving species, emphasizing the challenges associated with predicting future responses of extant mammals to climate and human-mediated habitat change.
Asunto(s)
Biota , Cambio Climático/historia , Extinción Biológica , Actividades Humanas/historia , Mamíferos/fisiología , Animales , Teorema de Bayes , Bison , ADN Mitocondrial/análisis , ADN Mitocondrial/genética , Europa (Continente) , Fósiles , Variación Genética , Geografía , Historia Antigua , Caballos , Humanos , Mamíferos/genética , Mamuts , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Dinámica Poblacional , Reno , Siberia , Especificidad de la Especie , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
Members of the phospholipid scramblase (PLSCR) family play active roles in altering lipid asymmetry at the plasma membrane including phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) exposure on the cell surface. To determine whether PtdSer biosynthesis and externalization are altered by PLSCR activities during apoptosis, Chinese hamster ovary K1 cell lines stably overexpressing PLSCR1 and PLSCR2 were established. PLSCR1 was localized on the plasma membrane, whereas PLSCR2 was predominantly in the nucleus. Cells overexpressing PLSCR1 showed suppressed growth, altered cell morphology, and higher basal levels of cell death. Following UV irradiation, these cells showed earlier and enhanced PtdSer exposure, increased caspase-3 activation, apoptotic nuclear changes, and PARP cleavage indicative of apoptosis. UV irradiation in cells overexpressing PLSCR1 led to a 4-fold stimulation of PtdSer synthesis (accompanied by increased movement of newly made PtdSer into microvesicles) relative to untreated PLSCR1 cells, whereas PtdSer formation in UV-irradiated vector control cells increased only by 2-fold. No differences in these responses were observed between PLSCR2-expressing cells and vector controls. PtdSer synthesis and its transbilayer movement stimulated by PLSCR1 overexpression were blocked by a caspase inhibitor along with progression of apoptosis. Thus, our studies showed that overexpression of PLSCR1 in Chinese hamster ovary K1 cells stimulated caspase-dependent PtdSer externalization and synthesis, implying an up-regulation of PtdSer formation in response to enhanced outward movement of this phospholipid to the cell surface during apoptosis. PLSCR1 also appears to influence progression of UV-induced apoptosis and could be a point of regulation or intervention during programmed cell death.