Martial arts, combat sports, and mental health in adults: A systematic review.

Martial arts (MA) and combat sports (CS) are physical activities that may be associated with health-related outcomes. The aim of this systematic review was to synthesize and evaluate the available evidence on the relationship between MA and CS training and mental health of adult practitioners (≥18 years). CochraneLibrary, EBSCOhost, Web-of-Science, and Scopus databases were searched up to September 2022 for measures of self-related constructs, ill-being and well-being, cognition and brain structure/function, in adult MA/CS practitioners. Seventy cross-sectional and two longitudinal studies were retained and submitted to risk of bias assessments through an adapted version of the Cochrane Collaboration's Tool. Associations between MA/CS practice and self-related constructs were inconclusive for both consistency and strength of evidence. Limited evidence of significant associations emerged for sub-domains of ill-being (i.e., externalizing and internalizing emotion regulation), and well-being. In regard to cognitive and brain structural/functional variables, evidence of positive association with MA/CS practice was consistent with respect to perceptual and inhibition abilities but limited with respect to attention and memory. Evidence on negative associations of boxing with changes of brain structure integrity due to concussions was also inconclusive. Functional imaging techniques could shed light onto brain activation mechanisms underlying complex cognitive performance. In relation to moderators, mixed results were found for activity exposure, expertise, level of competitive engagement (which often covary with the length of training) and sex and type of MA/CS. The MA/CS' multifaceted nature may produce different, sometimes conflicting outcomes on mental health. Studies on MA/CS represent a flourishing research area needing extensive improvement in theoretical and practical approaches.

Effects of a 4-month judo program on gait performance in older adults.

BACKGROUND: Falls prevention is a critical goal of training program for older individuals. This study explored the effects of a judo program on gait performance in older adults. METHODS: Pre- and post-intervention (15 weeks, 1-hr session, twice a week) step length (cm), gait cycle time (s), speed (m·s-1) and cadence (step·min-1) mean values (AVG) and coefficients of variation (CV) were assessed in a judo (JG: N.=16 novice judoka; age=69.3±3.9 years) and a control (CG: N.=14 healthy older adults; age=70.1±4.5 years) group. Two 3 (motor complexity: flat, corridor, hurdling) ×2 (group: JG, CG) ×2 (time: pre, post) MANOVAs with repeated measures were applied to ascertain differences in gait parameters. RESULTS: A significant Time×Motor Complexity×Group interaction was found for AVG and CV. For AVG, JG showed improvements for flat and hurdling conditions in step length (flat: ∆=+2.6%, d=0.4; hurdling: ∆=+3.2%, d=0.4), gait cycle (flat: ∆=-4.3%, d=0.4; hurdling: ∆=-4.0%, d=0.5), speed (flat: ∆=+6.6%, d=0.7; hurdling: ∆=+6.7%, d=0.6) and cadence (flat: ∆=4.3%, d=0.4; hurdling: ∆=3.9%, d=0.5). For CV, JG improved step length for flat (∆=-20.9%, d=0.6) and hurdling (∆=-16.3%, d=0.8) conditions, whereas CG showed a deterioration in the step length for the corridor condition (∆=+22.3%, d=0.7). CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of an adapted judo program for improving gait performance in older individuals, suggesting a potential protective effect for fall risk.

Effects of Judo Training on Bones: A Systematic Literature Review.

Ciaccioni, S, Condello, G, Guidotti, F, and Capranica, L. Effects of judo training on bones: a systematic literature review. J Strength Cond Res 33(10): 2882-2896, 2019-The aim of this study was to provide a systematic literature review on the osteogenic effects of judo (PROSPERO: CRD42016041803). The online search was conducted according to the inclusion criteria: observational studies and clinical/interventional trials in English from inception to June 2016; bone health, bone mineral density (BMD), diameters, impact force, and bone turnover marker (BTM) outcomes. Thirty-four studies were included and graded for their methodological quality ("fair" quality: 79.4%). The most used assessment method (44.1%) was X-ray absorptiometry. A positive association between judo and bone health/status emerged. Findings support site-specific BMD accrual in children, adolescents, adult athletes, and in premenopausal and postmenopausal female practitioners. Bone turnover markers revealed a hypermetabolic status in high-level judo athletes. The osteogenic stimuli of judo seem to protect athletes from alterations in bone metabolic balance due to weight loss cycling. Sexual dimorphism was found between judoka in bone diameters and mass, and significant differences in bone breadths emerged between elite and nonelite judokas. The fall techniques reduced bone impact force and velocity with respect to "natural" fall. Further longitudinal, cross-sectional, and interventional researches are required. This article provides useful information on bone for health sport scientists, coaches, and practitioners, stimulating future research lines on judo. In particular, coaches and physical trainers should consider introducing judo fall techniques in their training plans to prevent fall-related injuries, especially relevant in the older population. Conversely, coaches are urged to carefully control weight cycling dietary habits of their athletes, which can produce serious metabolic responses on bones.

Validity and Reliability of a New Test of Planned Agility in Elite Taekwondo Athletes.

Chaabene, H, Negra, Y, Capranica, L, Bouguezzi, R, Hachana, Y, Rouahi, MA, and Mkaouer, B. Validity and reliability of a new test of planned agility in elite taekwondo athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(9): 2542-2547, 2018-This study aimed to examine the validity, reliability, and sensitivity of a new test of planned agility in elite taekwondo athletes and to establish its relationship with sprint-time, jumping ability, and dynamic balance. Twenty-seven (20 males and 7 females) taekwondo athletes participated in this study. They performed taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT) in 2 occasions (i.e., test-retest). In addition, they performed jumping ability (i.e., squat jump, countermovement jump, standing long jump, and 3-hop jump), sprint-time (5- and 20-m dash), and dynamic balance (i.e., Y-test) tests along with a planned agility test (i.e., T-test). To establish TSAT's construct validity, 2 subgroups were identified based on their international and national taekwondo results: top elite (9 males and 2 females) and elite (11 males and 2 females). Taekwondo-specific agility test showed high relative and absolute reliability as well as a good ability to detect small and meaningful performance change. Top-elite athletes showed greater (p < 0.001) TSAT performances (4.5 ± 0.4 seconds) compared with their elite (5.3 ± 0.4 seconds) counterparts. Receiving operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that TSAT was able to discriminate athletes of different competitive level as revealed by an area under the ROC curve of 0.94 (95% confidence interval: 0.76-0.99). Taekwondo-specific agility test demonstrated significant association with the T-test (r = 0.71; shared variance = 50%), which is considered as a gold-standard planned agility test. In addition, results showed moderate-to-large associations between TSAT and jumping ability, sprint-time, and dynamic balance tests. The TSAT might be considered as a valid and reliable test to evaluate specific agility of taekwondo athletes.

Developing a systems-based framework of the factors influencing dietary and physical activity behaviours in ethnic minority populations living in Europe - a DEDIPAC study.

BACKGROUND: Some ethnic minority populations have a higher risk of non-communicable diseases than the majority European population. Diet and physical activity behaviours contribute to this risk, shaped by a system of inter-related factors. This study mapped a systems-based framework of the factors influencing dietary and physical activity behaviours in ethnic minority populations living in Europe, to inform research prioritisation and intervention development. METHODS: A concept mapping approach guided by systems thinking was used: i. Preparation (protocol and terminology); ii. Generating a list of factors influencing dietary and physical activity behaviours in ethnic minority populations living in Europe from evidence (systematic mapping reviews) and 'eminence' (89 participants from 24 academic disciplines via brainstorming, an international symposium and expert review) and; iii. Seeking consensus on structuring, rating and clustering factors, based on how they relate to each other; and iv. Interpreting/utilising the framework for research and interventions. Similar steps were undertaken for frameworks developed for the majority European population. RESULTS: Seven distinct clusters emerged for dietary behaviour (containing 85 factors) and 8 for physical activity behaviours (containing 183 factors). Four clusters were similar across behaviours: Social and cultural environment; Social and material resources; Psychosocial; and Migration context. Similar clusters of factors emerged in the frameworks for diet and physical activity behaviours of the majority European population, except for 'migration context'. The importance of factors across all clusters was acknowledged, but their relative importance differed for ethnic minority populations compared with the majority population. CONCLUSIONS: This systems-based framework integrates evidence from both expert opinion and published literature, to map the factors influencing dietary and physical activity behaviours in ethnic minority groups. Our findings illustrate that innovative research and complex interventions need to be developed that are sensitive to the needs of ethnic minority populations. A systems approach that encompasses the complexity of the inter-related factors that drive behaviours may inform a more holistic public health paradigm to more effectively reach ethnic minorities living in Europe, as well as the majority host population.

Salivary alpha-amylase, salivary cortisol, and anxiety during a youth taekwondo championship: An observational study.

The aim of this study was to assess the stress-related responses and the coach's capability to match perceived efforts of youth athletes during a taekwondo championship.Using a cross-sectional study design, salivary cortisol (sC) and alpha-amylase (sAA) were measured in 6 males and 3 females young (11.0 ±â€Š0.9 years) athletes at awakening, 5 minutes before, and 1 minute and 30 minutes after official combats. State anxiety was recorded 60 minutes before the first competition, whereas coach's and athletes' ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were obtained at the end of the combats. Time-matched (awakening and pre-competition) salivary samples and trait anxiety were collected 7-day postcompetition during a resting day.No effect for match outcome emerged. No difference emerged between athletes and coach RPEs. Higher (P = .03) state anxiety (41.6 ±â€Š10.9 points) was shown than trait anxiety (34.8 ±â€Š7.1 points). Time-matched sAA were similar. Peak sAA observed at the end of the combat (114.2 ±â€Š108.1 U/mL) was higher (P < .01) than the other samples (range: 20.6-48.1 U/mL), whereas sC increased (P < .05) from awakening (8.0 ±â€Š1.5 nmol/L), with peak levels observed at 30 minutes into the recovery phase (19.3 ±â€Š4.3 nmol/L). Furthermore, pre-competition sC (16.5 ±â€Š4.5 nmol/L) values were higher (P < .01) with respect to time-matched samples during the resting day (4.6 ±â€Š1.0 nmol/L). The 3 athletes engaged in consecutive matches showed a tendency toward increasing sAA and sC.Taekwondo combats pose a high stress on young athletes, eliciting a fast reactivity of the sympathetic-adreno-medullary system relative to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system. Understanding the athlete's efforts during combats, coaches are recommended to apply effective recovery strategies between matches.

Session-RPE for quantifying load of different youth taekwondo training sessions.

BACKGROUND: The session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) proved to be a valuable method to quantify the internal training load (ITL) in taekwondo. However, no study validated this method in youth taekwondo athletes performing different training sessions. Thus this study aimed at evaluating the reliability of the session-RPE to monitor the ITL of prepubescent taekwondo athletes during pre-competitive (PC) and competitive (C) training sessions. METHODS: Five female (age: 12.0±0.7 y; height: 1.54±0.08 m; body mass: 48.8±7.3 kg) and four male (age: 12.0±0.8 yrs; height: 1.55±0.07 m; body mass: 47.3±5.3 kg) taekwondo athletes were monitored during 100 individual sessions (PC: N.=33; C: N.=67). The Edwards' HR method was used as reference measure of ITL; the CR-10 RPE scale was administered at 1- and 30-minutes from the end of each session. RESULTS: No difference for gender emerged. The ITLs of C (Edwards: 228±40 arbitrary units, AU) resulted higher than that of PC (192±26 AU; P=0.04). Although all training typologies and data collections achieved significant correlations between Edwards' and session-RPE methods, a large relationship (r =0.71, P<0.001) emerged only for PC sessions evaluated at 30 minutes of the recovery phases. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support coaches of prepubescent taekwondo athletes to successfully use session-RPE to monitor the ITL of different training typologies. However, PC training evaluated at 30 minutes of the recovery phase represents the best condition for a highly reliable ITL perception.

Differences in corticospinal system activity and reaction response between karate athletes and non-athletes.

The aim of this study was to verify the hypothesis that transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) parameters over the hand region of the motor cortex, such as resting motor threshold (rMT) and motor evoked potential (MEP) latency, predict the behavioural performance of karate athletes in the response time (RT) test. Twenty-five male karate athletes (24.9 ± 4.9 years) and 25 matched non-athletes (26.2 ± 4.5 years) were recruited. Using TMS, we investigated cortico-spinal system excitability. Compared with controls, the athletes showed faster RT (p < 0.001), lower rMT (p < 0.01), shorter MEP latency (p < 0.01), and higher MEP amplitude (p < 0.01); moreover, there was a significant positive linear correlation between RT and rMT (p < 0.001), between RT and MEP latency (p < 0.0001), and a negative correlation between RT and MEP amplitude (p < 0.001). The practice of competitive sports affects both the central and peripheral nervous system. Subjects that showed higher cortical excitability showed also higher velocity, at which the neural signal is propagated from the motor cortex to the muscle and consequently better RT. The lower rMT and the shorter MEP latency observed in athletes support the effects of training in determining specific brain organizations to meet specific sport challenges.

Relationship between blood lactate and cortical excitability between taekwondo athletes and non-athletes after hand-grip exercise.

OBJECTIVES: In taekwondo competitions, fatigue has a large influence on performance. Recent studies have reported that the excitability in the primary hand motor cortex, investigated with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), is enhanced at the end of a maximal exercise and that this improvement correlates with blood lactate. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between blood lactate and cortical excitability in taekwondo athletes and non-athletes. METHODS: The excitability of the primary motor cortex was measured before and after fatiguing hand-grip exercise by TMS. Capillary blood lactate was measured at rest (pre-test), at the end (0 min), and at 3 and 10 min after the exercise by using a "Lactate Pro" portable lactate analyzer. RESULTS: Significant differences in cortical excitability between the two groups were found after the exercise (p < 0.05). Furthermore, we found a significant relationship between cortical excitability and blood lactate (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The present findings showed changes in the excitability in the athletes group and also in the non-athletes group. However, blood lactate seems to have the greater effect in trained subjects compared to untrained subjects. In fact, it appears that, during extremely intensive exercise in taekwondo athletes, lactate may delay the onset of fatigue not only by maintaining the excitability of muscle, but also by increasing the excitability of the primary motor cortex more than in non-athletes.

Functional Assessment of Corticospinal System Excitability in Karate Athletes.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the involvement of the primary motor cortex (M1) in the coordination performance of karate athletes through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). METHODS: Thirteen right-handed male karate athletes (25.0±5.0 years) and 13 matched non-athlete controls (26.7±6.2 years) were enrolled. A single-pulse TMS was applied using a figure-eight coil stimulator. Resting motor threshold (rMT) was determined. Surface electromyography was recorded from the first dorsal interosseous muscle. Motor evoked potential (MEP) latencies and amplitudes at rMT, 110%, and 120% of rMT were considered. Functional assessment of the coordination performance was assessed by in-phase (IP) and anti-phase (AP) homolateral hand and foot coordination tasks performed at 80, 120, and 180 bpm. RESULTS: Compared to controls, athletes showed lower rMT (p<0.01), shorter MEP latency (p<0.01) and higher MEP amplitude (p<0.01), with a significant correlation (r = 0.50, p<0.01) between rMT and MEP latency. Coordination decreased with increasing velocity, and better IP performances emerged compared to AP ones (p<0.001). In general, a high correlation between rMT and coordination tasks was found for both IP and AP conditions. CONCLUSION: With respect to controls, karate athletes present a higher corticospinal excitability indicating the presence of an activity-dependent alteration in the balance and interactions between inhibitory and facilitatory circuits determining the final output from the M1. Furthermore, the high correlation between corticospinal excitability and coordination performance could support sport-specific neurophysiological arrangements.

Technical-tactical analysis of youth olympic taekwondo combat.

The purpose of this study was to define the technical and tactical profiles of official youth taekwondo competitions played under the most recent rules of the International Taekwondo Federation. Tactical actions (i.e., attack, defense, and block), technical executions (from 1- to 4-point scores), kicking legs (i.e., front/rear and right/left), and overall technical effectiveness were investigated in relation to match outcome of semifinal and final competitions (n = 50) of youth (aged 13-14 years) black belt athletes during the Italian Taekwondo Cadet Championship. Differences (p < 0.001) were found among all action typologies (Attack: 50.9 ± 2.2%; Defense: 27.7 ± 1.5%; Block: 21.3 ± 1.6%), with winners showing fewer (p = 0.005) offensive actions and more (p = 0.001) defensive actions with respect to non-winners. Independently from match outcome, technical exchanges showed differences (p < 0.001) for technical executions. Winners resulted more efficient (p < 0.001) for both technical and tactical variables. In general, these findings showed that Cadets tend to adopt an offensive strategy. In considering that the adoption of the new electronic system requires athletes to execute correct technical actions to have a score assigned, coaches should emphasize the effectiveness of scoring techniques and help athletes to effectively improve their defense and counterattack capabilities.

Time-motion analysis of youth Olympic Taekwondo combats.

This study aimed to analyze the time-motion structure of combat phases (fighting: F, nonfighting: NF, and stoppage time: ST) during semifinal and final matches (three 1.5-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) of the 2010 Italian Taekwondo Cadet (age 13-14 years) Championship (adolescent boys, n = 40; adolescent girls, n = 28) in relation to gender (adolescent boys and girls) and grouped weight division (light, middle, and heavy) of athletes. Regardless of gender, grouped weight division, round, and tournament stage, differences (p < 0.001, effect size range: 1.92-3.02) emerged for frequency of occurrence of combat phases (F: 42.4 ± 0.5%; NF: 44.5 ± 0.7%; ST: 13.1 ± 0.9%) and their mean duration (F: 2.8 ± 1.0 seconds; NF: 6.5 ± 1.8 seconds; ST: 13.7 ± 5.0 seconds). A 1:2 F to NF ratio was found, whereas a 1:3 ratio emerged when F was considered in relation to the sum of NF and ST. During F phase, 5 ± 1 tactical movements and 4 ± 1 technical exchanges were performed, lasting 0.6 ± 0.1 seconds and 0.7 ± 0.1 seconds, respectively. These findings mirrored the intermittent nature of youth combat, characterized by a high occurrence of tactical movements and technical exchanges during F phase. The lack of differences for round and tournament stages indicates a limited tactical capability of young athletes in adopting specific match strategies, independently from gender and weight divisions of the athletes. To prepare young athletes to handle the technical-tactical demands of the match, coaches could include 7-9 circuit stations of specific taekwondo sequences of attack and counter attack techniques.

Physiological versus psychological evaluation in taekwondo elite athletes.

PURPOSE: To anticipate outstanding athletic outcomes, the selection process of elite athletes simultaneously considers psychophysiological and technical parameters. This study aimed to investigate whether selected and nonselected athletes for the Italian national taekwondo team could be discriminated by means of sport specific performances and psychophysiological responses to training. PARTICIPANTS: 5 established Italian national athletes and 20 elite Italian taekwondo black belt athletes (9 women, 16 men; age 23.0 ± 3.1 y; body mass 67.0 ± 12.1 kg). METHODS: To update the Italian national-team roster, the 20 elite athletes participated in a 1-wk selection camp (7 training sessions). Selected athletes (n = 10) joined established national athletes during the following 3-wk national training period (7 training sessions/wk). During the 1-wk selection camp, differences (P < .05) between selected and nonselected athletes in performances, heart-rate responses, blood lactate accumulation [La], subjective ratings of perceived exertion (session RPE), and mood were examined. During the 3-wk national training period, differences (P < .05) in mood between selected and established national athletes were investigated. RESULTS: With respect to nonselected athletes, selected athletes responded better to training in terms of session RPE (P = .047) and [La] (P = .046). No difference in performance and mood between subgroups emerged. After the 3-wk national training period, differences (P = .035) emerged for confusion, with decreases in the established national athletes and increases for recently selected athletes. CONCLUSIONS: Session RPE and [La] seem to be more effective than psychological measures in discriminating between elite taekwondo athletes. Evaluation of mood could be effective in monitoring athletes' response to national training.

Technical and tactical analysis of youth taekwondo performance.

This study aimed to analyze the technical and tactical aspects of young athletes during official taekwondo competitions. Fifty-nine youth taekwondo athletes (43 boys and 16 girls; age range: 10-12 years; weight category range: <24 to >59 kg) with at least 2 years of taekwondo training consisting of three 90-minute training sessions for 3 d·wk⁻¹ participated in this study. Thirty-seven matches (three 1-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) were analyzed to verify the differences (p ≤ 0.05) in offensive and defensive actions in relation to gender (male, female), match outcome (winners, nonwinners), kicking leg (front, rear), and round (first, second, third). No difference emerged for gender and match outcome. With respect to defensive actions (8.4 ± 12.0%), youth athletes engaged more frequently (p < 0.0001) in offensive actions (91.6 ± 12.0%), which showed a significant decrease (p < 0.016) from the first round (42.3 ± 21.8%) to the second (33.1 ± 14.8%) and third (24.5 ± 16.0%) ones. Kicks performed with the rear leg (94.4 ± 7.8%) occurred more frequently (p < 0.0001) than those performed with the front leg (5.6 ± 7.8%). In considering that a high level of coordination is required to perform front-leg kicks and defensive actions necessitate a high level of tactical skills, these findings might indicate a not-yet complete attainment of fundamental coordinative capabilities in 10- to 12-year-old athletes, independently of match outcome. To enhance coordination capabilities in youth athletes, coaches are recommended to structure their training including skill-ability and sport-ability drills.

Salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase reactivity to taekwondo competition in children.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an official taekwondo competition (three 1-min rounds with a 1-min recovery in-between) on heart rate (HR), salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), and salivary-free cortisol (sC) in children. Parental consent was obtained for 12 young (10.4 ± 0.2 years) male taekwondo athletes. Saliva sample were collected 15 min before and 1 min after an official taekwondo competition, and at 30, 60, and 90 min of the recovery period. To evaluate the exercise intensity during the competition, HR was measured and expressed as a percentage of individuals HR(peak). Athletes spent 78% of the time working at HR > 90% HR(max), with significant increases from round 1 to round 2 and 3. Peak sAA observed at the end of the match (169.6 ± 47.0 U/mL) was different (P = 0.0001) from the other samplings (pre-competition 55.0 ± 14.0 U/mL, 30-min recovery 80.4 ± 17.7 U/mL, 60-min recovery 50.5 ± 7.6 U/ml; 90-min recovery 53.2 ± 9.6 U/mL). Peak sC values observed at 30-min recovery (17.9 ± 3.5 nmol/L) were different (P < 0.0001) from pre-competition (5.6 ± 0.9 nmol/L), post-competition (9.0 ± 2.0 nmol/L), 60-min recovery (10.3 ± 2.6 nmol/L) and 90-min recovery (4.2 ± 0.8 nmol/L) values. These findings confirm that taekwondo competitions pose a high stress on young athletes. The different sAA and sC reactions in response to the physical stressor mirror the faster reactivity of the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system relatively to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system, respectively. This experimental paradigm might represent a useful model for further research on the effects of various stressors (i.e., training and competition) in taekwondo athletes.

Effects of official Taekwondo competitions on all-out performances of elite athletes.

This study investigated physiological and performance aspects of 15 (4 women and 11 men) elite Taekwondo athletes (24.0 ± 5.7 years) during their National Championship. The load of the competition was evaluated by means of heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (La). Pre and postmatch countermovement jump (CMJ), and handgrip performances were compared (p < 0.05). The match imposed a high load (HR > 85% of individual HRmax = 92 ± 12%; La = 6.7 ± 2.5 mmol·L⁻¹) on athletes. After the match, better (p < 0.0001) CMJ (men: 43.9 ± 5.2 cm; women: 30.8 ± 2.3 cm) and worst (p = 0.006) handgrip performances (men: 459 ± 87 N; women: 337 ± 70 N) were found with respect to prematch ones (CMJ: men = 40.8 ± 4.9 cm, women = 28.2 ± 2.5 cm; handgrip: men = 486 ± 88 N, women: 337 ± 70 N). Results indicate that the intermittent activity of the Taekwondo competition elicits a high neuromuscular activation of the lower limbs. Instead, the decreases in grip strength could be because of the repeated concussions on the upper limbs used to protect from the opponent's kicks and punches directed toward the scoring area of the torso. Practically, these results urge coaches to structure training sessions that enable athletes to maintain their upper limb strength during their match.

Effectiveness of active versus passive recovery strategies after futsal games.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of immediate postgame recovery interventions (seated rest, supine electrostimulation, low-intensity land exercises, and water exercises) on anaerobic performance (countermovement jump [CMJ], bounce jumping, 10-m sprint), hormones (salivary cortisol, urinary catecholamines), and subjective ratings (rate of perceived exertion [RPE], leg muscle pain, Questionnaire of Recovery Stress for Athletes [RestQ Sport], 10-point Likert scale), and hours of sleep of futsal players. Heart rate (HR), blood lactate, and RPE were used to evaluate the intensity of 4 futsal games in 10 players using a crossover design (P < 0.05), randomly allocating athletes to 1 of the 4 recovery interventions at the end of each game. No significant difference emerged between HR, blood lactate, RPE, and level of hydration of the games. A significant difference (P < 0.001) between games emerged for total urinary catecholamines, with an increase from the first to the second game and a gradual reduction up to the fourth game. After the game, significant reductions in CMJ (P < 0.001) and 10-m sprints (P < 0.05) emerged. No significant difference was found between recovery interventions for anaerobic performances, hormones, muscle pain, and RestQ Sport. Even though a well-balanced diet, rehydration, and controlled lifestyle might represent a sufficient recovery intervention in young elite athletes, the players perceived significantly increased benefit (P < 0.01) from the electrostimulation (7.8 +/- 1.4 points) and water exercises (7.6 +/- 2.1 points) compared to dry exercises (6.6 +/- 1.8 points) and seated rest (5.2 +/- 0.8 points.), which might improve their attitude toward playing. To induce progressive hormonal adaptation to the high exercise load of multiple games, in the last 2 weeks of the preseason, coaches should organize friendly games at a level similar to that of the competitive season.

Effects of different recovery interventions on anaerobic performances following preseason soccer training.

In the preseason soccer training, morning and afternoon training sessions often are scheduled daily. The high frequency of training sessions could place heavy strain on biological systems, and it is necessary to apply proper recovery strategies for improving the players' capability to regain an adequate working state for subsequent training units. However, the effect of recovery interventions following soccer training units is debatable, due to a lack of studies performed in field situations. The aim of this study was to examine, during a 21-day preseason soccer training, the most effective recovery intervention (i.e., passive, dry-aerobic exercises, water-aerobic exercises, electrostimulation) on anaerobic performances (i.e., squat jump, countermovement jump, bounce jumping, and 10-m sprint) and subjective ratings (i.e., perceived exertion and muscle pain), with the conditions before the intervention controlled and standardized. Twelve young (age: 18.1 +/- 1.2 years) elite soccer players participated. Data were collected on 4 occasions 2 days apart and at the same time of the day. Activity and dietary intake were replicated on each occasion. After baseline measurements, participants performed a standardized training during which their heart rates and ratings of perceived exertion were recorded. This was followed by a 20-minute recovery intervention. After a 5-hour rest, athletes' ratings of muscle pain were recorded prior to a second test session. There were no significant differences in exercise intensities and baseline anaerobic performances. Significantly (p < 0.01) better performances were observed in the afternoon. Although no main effect of recovery intervention was observed on anaerobic performances, dry-aerobic exercises (0.6 +/- 0.9) and electrostimulation (0.6 +/- 1.2) were more beneficial (p < 0.01) than water-aerobic exercises (2.1 +/- 1.1) and passive rest (2.1 +/- 1.7) for reducing muscle pain, which could affect the player's working ability.