Black garlic particles as a natural pigment and emulsifier in a Pickering emulsion based low fat innovative mayonnaise: Improved rheology and bioactivity.

Black garlic is rich in brown pigments and Maillard reaction products are known for antioxidant activity and health promoting effects. In the present investigation, we report a facile strategy for fabricating low-fat innovative mayonnaise (IM) using black garlic particles (BGP) as a natural pigment, and a functional ingredient. Whey protein concentrate and high methoxyl pectin at optimized concentrations were utilized for fabricating an IM which served as a control. IM5 and IM10 were ternary composites constituting whey protein, high methoxyl pectin along with BGP (@5 and 10% respectively). The formulation IM10 (BGP @10%) showed high firmness and low spreadability quotient, hence IM5 was taken forward for fabrication for two more variants namely IM-J (using low methoxyl pectin (LMP) from jackfruit peels) and IM-C (LMP from citrus). The effect of BGP and LMP on the functional quality of IM was confirmed through zeta potential, antioxidant activity, textural, rheological, and microscopic evaluation. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the presence of solid particles over the fat phase of IM, while interaction of pectin and whey proteins was demonstrated through fluorescence emission spectroscopy which clearly displayed stabilization of IM through the formation of Pickering emulsion. Pronounced difference in color and flavor score with BGP established high sensory scores in IM5, IM-J, and IM-C. Rheology supported the stabilizing effects of LMP in IM-J and IM-C in terms of speedy recovery of thixotropy, with recovering storage modulus (G'). Enhanced viscosity of IM-C and IM-J further corroborated the dual effect of LMP and BGP in improving emulsifying and functional quality of IM. Enhanced oxidative stability of IM was established by reduced peroxide and Totox values. Overall our results suggest the promising applications of black garlic as functional ingredient in protein and pectin based Pickering emulsions.

Nematicidal and Molecular Docking Investigation of Essential Oils from Pogostemon cablin Ecotypes against Meloidogyne incognita.

Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita is one of the most destructive nematodes worldwide. Essential oils (EOs) are being extensively utilized as eco-benign bionematicides, although the precise mechanism of action remains unclear. Pogostemon cablin Benth. is well-known as "Patchouli". It is native to South East Asia and known for ethno-pharmacological properties. In this study, chemical composition and potential nematicidal effect of EOs hydrodistilled from the leaves of P. cablin grown at three different locations in India were comprehensively investigated to correlate their mechanism of action for target specific binding affinities toward nematode proteins. Aromatic volatile Pogostemon essential oils (PEO) from Northern India (PEO-NI), Southern India (PEO-SI) and North Eastern India (PEO-NEI) were analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) to characterize forty volatile compounds. Maximum thirty-three components were identified in PEO-NEI. Sesquiterpenes were predominant with higher content of α-guaiene (2.3-24.4 %), patchoulol (6.1-32.7 %) and α-bulnesene (5.9-27.1 %). Patchoulol was the major component in PEO-SI (32.7±1.2 %) and PEO-NEI (29.2±1.1 %), while α-guaiene in PEO-NI (24.4±1.2 %). In vitro nematicidal assay revealed significant nematicidal action (LC50 44.6-87.0 µg mL-1 ) against juveniles of M. incognita within 24 h exposure. Mortality increases with increasing time to 48 h (LC50 33.6-71.6 µg mL-1 ) and 72 h (LC50 27.7-61.2 µg mL-1 ). Molecular modelling and in silico studies revealed multi-modal inhibitive action of α-bulnesene (-22 to -13 kJ mol-1 ) and α-guaiene (-22 to -12 kJ mol-1 ) against three target proteins namely, acetyl cholinesterase (AChE), odorant response gene-1 (ODR1), odorant response gene-3 (ODR3). Most preferable binding mechanism was observed against AChE due to pi-alkyl, pi-sigma, and hydrophobic interactions. Structure nematicidal activity relationship suggested the presence of hydroxy group for nematicidal activity is nonessential, rather highly depends on synergistic composition of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.

Ultrasound-assisted development of stable grapefruit peel polyphenolic nano-emulsion: Optimization and application in improving oxidative stability of mustard oil.

Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) peel (GP) is rich in flavonoids and phenolics which have several proven pharmacological effects. However, their chemical instability towards oxygen, light and heat limits its applications in food industries. In the present study, we evaluated the feasibility of fabricating grapefruit-peel-phenolic (GPP) nano-emulsion in mustard oil using ultrasonication. Response surface methodology (RSM) optimization revealed that sonication time of 9.5 min at 30% amplitude and 0.52% Span-80 produced the stable GPP nano-emulsion with a droplet size of 29.73 ± 1.62 nm. Results indicate that both ultrasonication and Span-80 can assist the fabrication of a stabilized nano-emulsion. This study is one of its kind where nano-encapsulation of GPP into W/O emulsion was done to stabilize the active compound inside mustard oil and then the nano-emulsion was used to extend oxidative stability of mustard oil. Findings provide a basic guideline to formulate stable nano-emulsions for their use in active food packaging, oils, and pharmaceuticals.

Computational Modeling of the Photon Transport, Tissue Heating, and Cytochrome C Oxidase Absorption during Transcranial Near-Infrared Stimulation.

Transcranial near-infrared stimulation (tNIRS) has been proposed as a tool to modulate cortical excitability. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clear where the heating effects on the brain tissue needs investigation due to increased near-infrared (NIR) absorption by water and fat. Moreover, the risk of localized heating of tissues (including the skin) during optical stimulation of the brain tissue is a concern. The challenge in estimating localized tissue heating is due to the light interaction with the tissues' constituents, which is dependent on the combination ratio of the scattering and absorption properties of the constituent. Here, apart from tissue heating that can modulate the cortical excitability ("photothermal effects"); the other mechanism reported in the literature is the stimulation of the mitochondria in the cells which are active in the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. In the mitochondrial respiratory chain, Complex IV, also known as the cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), is the unit four with three copper atoms. The absorption peaks of CCO are in the visible (420-450 nm and 600-700 nm) and the near-infrared (760-980 nm) spectral regions, which have been shown to be promising for low-level light therapy (LLLT), also known as "photobiomodulation". While much higher CCO absorption peaks in the visible spectrum can be used for the photobiomodulation of the skin, 810 nm has been proposed for the non-invasive brain stimulation (using tNIRS) due to the optical window in the NIR spectral region. In this article, we applied a computational approach to delineate the "photothermal effects" from the "photobiomodulation", i.e., to estimate the amount of light absorbed individually by each chromophore in the brain tissue (with constant scattering) and the related tissue heating. Photon migration simulations were performed for motor cortex tNIRS based on a prior work that used a 500 mW cm - 2 light source placed on the scalp. We simulated photon migration at 630 nm and 700 nm (red spectral region) and 810 nm (near-infrared spectral region). We found a temperature increase in the scalp below 0.25 °C and a minimal temperature increase in the gray matter less than 0.04 °C at 810 nm. Similar heating was found for 630 nm and 700 nm used for LLLT, so photothermal effects are postulated to be unlikely in the brain tissue.

Purity Evaluation of Curcuminoids in the Turmeric Extract Obtained by Accelerated Solvent Extraction.

Curcuminoids, the active principle of Curcuma longa L, is one of the most researched subjects worldwide for its broad-spectrum biological activities. Being traditionally known for their anticancer properties and issues related to bioavailability, the curcuminoids, including diferuloylmethane (curcumin), have gained special attention. Thus, the current study focused on the purity profiling of curcuminoids when extracted by accelerated solvent extraction, which was run with turmeric rhizome powder (20 g) at 1500 psi and at 50°C, with a static time of 10 min and with three cycles. The performance of ethanol, ethyl acetate, and acetone as extraction solvents was comparatively evaluated. Once extracted, the individual curcuminoids (curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin) were purified by column chromatography, followed by preparative TLC, and the compounds were characterized by spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques. The HPLC method was standardized by using a gradient mobile phase of water and acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid. The LODs were calculated as 0.27, 0.33, and 0.42 µg/mL for curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin, respectively. Accuracy (relative percentage error) and precision RSD values of the developed HPLC method were below 5%. The intraday accuracy ranged between -0.9 and -3.63%. The physical yield was the highest in ethanol (8.4%) extraction, followed by ethyl acetate (7.4%) and acetone (6.6%). Maximum purity was recorded in acetone (46.2%), followed by ethanol (43.4%) and ethyl acetate (38.8%), with no significant differences across the individual curcuminoids. This research will be useful for future applications related to the extraction of curcuminoids at a commercial level and to their profiling in food matrixes.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy - Electroencephalography-Based Brain-State-Dependent Electrotherapy: A Computational Approach Based on Excitation-Inhibition Balance Hypothesis.

Stroke is the leading cause of severe chronic disability and the second cause of death worldwide with 15 million new cases and 50 million stroke survivors. The poststroke chronic disability may be ameliorated with early neuro rehabilitation where non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques can be used as an adjuvant treatment to hasten the effects. However, the heterogeneity in the lesioned brain will require individualized NIBS intervention where innovative neuroimaging technologies of portable electroencephalography (EEG) and functional-near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) can be leveraged for Brain State Dependent Electrotherapy (BSDE). In this hypothesis and theory article, we propose a computational approach based on excitation-inhibition (E-I) balance hypothesis to objectively quantify the poststroke individual brain state using online fNIRS-EEG joint imaging. One of the key events that occurs following Stroke is the imbalance in local E-I (that is the ratio of Glutamate/GABA), which may be targeted with NIBS using a computational pipeline that includes individual "forward models" to predict current flow patterns through the lesioned brain or brain target region. The current flow will polarize the neurons, which can be captured with E-I-based brain models. Furthermore, E-I balance hypothesis can be used to find the consequences of cellular polarization on neuronal information processing, which can then be implicated in changes in function. We first review the evidence that shows how this local imbalance between E-I leading to functional dysfunction can be restored in targeted sites with NIBS (motor cortex and somatosensory cortex) resulting in large-scale plastic reorganization over the cortex, and probably facilitating recovery of functions. Second, we show evidence how BSDE based on E-I balance hypothesis may target a specific brain site or network as an adjuvant treatment. Hence, computational neural mass model-based integration of neurostimulation with online neuroimaging systems may provide less ambiguous, robust optimization of NIBS, and its application in neurological conditions and disorders across individual patients.

A Human-machine-interface Integrating Low-cost Sensors with a Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation System for Post-stroke Balance Rehabilitation.

A stroke is caused when an artery carrying blood from heart to an area in the brain bursts or a clot obstructs the blood flow to brain thereby preventing delivery of oxygen and nutrients. About half of the stroke survivors are left with some degree of disability. Innovative methodologies for restorative neurorehabilitation are urgently required to reduce long-term disability. The ability of the nervous system to reorganize its structure, function and connections as a response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli is called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is involved in post-stroke functional disturbances, but also in rehabilitation. Beneficial neuroplastic changes may be facilitated with non-invasive electrotherapy, such as neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) and sensory electrical stimulation (SES). NMES involves coordinated electrical stimulation of motor nerves and muscles to activate them with continuous short pulses of electrical current while SES involves stimulation of sensory nerves with electrical current resulting in sensations that vary from barely perceivable to highly unpleasant. Here, active cortical participation in rehabilitation procedures may be facilitated by driving the non-invasive electrotherapy with biosignals (electromyogram (EMG), electroencephalogram (EEG), electrooculogram (EOG)) that represent simultaneous active perception and volitional effort. To achieve this in a resource-poor setting, e.g., in low- and middle-income countries, we present a low-cost human-machine-interface (HMI) by leveraging recent advances in off-the-shelf video game sensor technology. In this paper, we discuss the open-source software interface that integrates low-cost off-the-shelf sensors for visual-auditory biofeedback with non-invasive electrotherapy to assist postural control during balance rehabilitation. We demonstrate the proof-of-concept on healthy volunteers.

Characterization of bacterial diversity in an atrazine degrading enrichment culture and degradation of atrazine, cyanuric acid and biuret in industrial wastewater.

An enrichment culture was used to study atrazine degradation in mineral salt medium (MSM) (T1), MSM+soil extract (1:1, v/v) (T2) and soil extract (T3). Results suggested that enrichment culture required soil extract to degrade atrazine, as after second sequential transfer only partial atrazine degradation was observed in T1 treatment while atrazine was completely degraded in T2 and T3 treatments even after fourth transfer. Culture independent polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) technique confirmed selective enrichment of genus Bacillus along with Pseudomonas and Burkholderia. Degradation of atrazine/metabolites in the industrial wastewater was studied at different initial concentrations of the contaminants [wastewater-water (v/v) ratio: T1, 1:9; T2, 2:8; T3, 3:7; T4, 5:5 and T5, undiluted effluent]. The initial concentrations of atrazine, cyanuric acid and biuret ranged between 5.32 and 53.92 µg mL(-1), 265.6 and 1805.2 µg mL(-1) and 1.85 and 16.12 µg mL(-1), respectively. The enrichment culture was able to completely degrade atrazine, cyanuric acid and biuret up to T4 treatment, while no appreciable degradation of contaminants was observed in the undiluted effluent (T5). Inability of enrichment culture to degrade atrazine/metabolites might be due to high concentrations of cyanuric acid. Therefore, a separate study on cyanuric acid degradation suggested: (i) no appreciable cyanuric acid degradation with accumulation of an unidentified metabolite in the medium where cyanuric acid was supplemented as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen; (ii) partial cyanuric acid degradation with accumulation of unidentified metabolite in the medium containing additional nitrogen source; and (iii) complete cyanuric acid degradation in the medium supplemented with an additional carbon source. This unidentified metabolite observed during cyanuric acid degradation and also detected in the enrichment culture inoculated wastewater samples, however, was degraded up to T4 treatments and was persistent in the T5 treatment. Probably, accumulation of this metabolite inhibited atrazine/cyanuric acid degradation by the enrichment culture in undiluted wastewater.

Point-of-care-testing of standing posture with Wii balance board and Microsoft Kinect during transcranial direct current stimulation: a feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) is a promising tool for facilitating motor function. NIBS therapy in conjunction with training using postural feedback may facilitate physical rehabilitation following posture disorders (e.g., Pusher Syndrome). OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were, 1) to develop a low-cost point-of-care-testing (POCT) system for standing posture, 2) to investigate the effects of anodal tDCS on functional reach tasks using the POCT system. METHODS: Ten community-dwelling elderly (age >50 years) subjects evaluated the POCT system for standing posture during functional reach tasks where their balance score on Berg Balance Scale was compared with that from Center-of-Mass (CoM) - Center-of-Pressure (CoP) posturography. Then, in a single-blind, sham-controlled study, five healthy right-leg dominant subjects (age: 26.4 ± 5.3 yrs) were evaluated using the POCT system under two conditions - with anodal tDCS of primary motor representations of right tibialis anterior muscle and with sham tDCS. RESULTS: The maximum CoP-CoM lean-angle was found to be well correlated with the BBS score in the elderly subjects The anodal tDCS strongly (p = 0.0000) affected the maximum CoP excursions but not the return reaction time in healthy. CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the CoM-CoP lean-line could be used for posture feedback and monitoring during tDCS therapy in conjunction with balance training exercises.

Facilitating myoelectric-control with transcranial direct current stimulation: a preliminary study in healthy humans.

BACKGROUND: Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) can electrically activate paretic muscles to assist movement for post-stroke neurorehabilitation. Here, sensory-motor integration may be facilitated by triggering FES with residual electromyographic (EMG) activity. However, muscle activity following stroke often suffers from delays in initiation and termination which may be alleviated with an adjuvant treatment at the central nervous system (CNS) level with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) thereby facilitating re-learning and retaining of normative muscle activation patterns. METHODS: This study on 12 healthy volunteers was conducted to investigate the effects of anodal tDCS of the primary motor cortex (M1) and cerebellum on latencies during isometric contraction of tibialis anterior (TA) muscle for myoelectric visual pursuit with quick initiation/termination of muscle activation i.e. 'ballistic EMG control' as well as modulation of EMG for 'proportional EMG control'. RESULTS: The normalized delay in initiation and termination of muscle activity during post-intervention 'ballistic EMG control' trials showed a significant main effect of the anodal tDCS target: cerebellar, M1, sham (F(2) = 2.33, p < 0.1), and interaction effect between tDCS target and step-response type: initiation/termination of muscle activation (F(2) = 62.75, p < 0.001), but no significant effect for the step-response type (F(1) = 0.03, p = 0.87). The post-intervention population marginal means during 'ballistic EMG control' showed two important findings at 95% confidence interval (critical values from Scheffe's S procedure): 1. Offline cerebellar anodal tDCS increased the delay in initiation of TA contraction while M1 anodal tDCS decreased the same when compared to sham tDCS, 2. Offline M1 anodal tDCS increased the delay in termination of TA contraction when compared to cerebellar anodal tDCS or sham tDCS. Moreover, online cerebellar anodal tDCS decreased the learning rate during 'proportional EMG control' when compared to M1 anodal and sham tDCS. CONCLUSIONS: The preliminary results from healthy subjects showed specific, and at least partially antagonistic effects, of M1 and cerebellar anodal tDCS on motor performance during myoelectric control. These results are encouraging, but further studies are necessary to better define how tDCS over particular regions of the cerebellum may facilitate learning of myoelectric control for brain machine interfaces.

Post-stroke balance rehabilitation under multi-level electrotherapy: a conceptual review.

Stroke is caused when an artery carrying blood from heart to an area in the brain bursts or a clot obstructs the blood flow thereby preventing delivery of oxygen and nutrients. About half of the stroke survivors are left with some degree of disability. Innovative methodologies for restorative neurorehabilitation are urgently required to reduce long-term disability. The ability of the nervous system to respond to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, function, and connections is called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is involved in post-stroke functional disturbances, but also in rehabilitation. It has been shown that active cortical participation in a closed-loop brain machine interface (BMI) can induce neuroplasticity in cortical networks where the brain acts as a controller, e.g., during a visuomotor task. Here, the motor task can be assisted with neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) where the BMI will act as a real-time decoder. However, the cortical control and induction of neuroplasticity in a closed-loop BMI is also dependent on the state of brain, e.g., visuospatial attention during visuomotor task performance. In fact, spatial neglect is a hidden disability that is a common complication of stroke and is associated with prolonged hospital stays, accidents, falls, safety problems, and chronic functional disability. This hypothesis and theory article presents a multi-level electrotherapy paradigm toward motor rehabilitation in virtual reality that postulates that while the brain acts as a controller in a closed-loop BMI to drive NMES, the state of brain can be can be altered toward improvement of visuomotor task performance with non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). This leads to a multi-level electrotherapy paradigm where a virtual reality-based adaptive response technology is proposed for post-stroke balance rehabilitation. In this article, we present a conceptual review of the related experimental findings.

Walking after partial paralysis assisted with EMG-triggered or switch-triggered functional electrical stimulation--two case studies.

Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) facilitates walking after paralysis by activating the muscles of the lower extremities. The FES-assisted stepping triggered either by a manual switch (switch-trigger), or by an electromyogram-based gait event detector (EMG-trigger) were presented in random order to two subjects with incomplete spinal cord injuries (iSCI) during ten trials over two alternate days. Subject iSCI-1 (C6 ASIA C) was non-ambulatory without the assistance of FES and could stand but not initiate a step volitionally. Subject iSCI-2 (T1 ASIA D) could walk only short distances with great difficulty without FES. Gait kinematics and kinetics were captured during FES-assisted over-ground walking with a rolling walker under laboratory conditions. Gait parameters including speed, left and right step length, left and right double support duration, left and right swing phase durations were extracted from the kinematic data. Mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and 95% confidence interval were computed for each gait parameter under each triggering condition. The ground reaction forces were recorded for both the subjects while upper body support provided by the instrumented walker was recorded for iSCI-2. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether significant differences existed in gait parameters between command sources. The left and right double support duration were significantly lower (p<0.05) during EMG-triggered gait than switch-triggered for iSCI-1. The average normal ground reaction force was significantly (p<0.05) higher during EMG-triggered gait than switch-triggered for iSCI-1 and iSCI-2. The average body weight support on the walker was significantly lower for EMG-triggered gait than switch-triggered one for iSCI-2. The results suggest that less user effort was needed when walking with EMG-triggered stepping than with manual switch trigger.

Gait initiation with electromyographically triggered electrical stimulation in people with partial paralysis.

Functional electrical stimulation (FES) facilitates ambulatory function after paralysis by activating the muscles of the lower extremities. Individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI) retain partial volitional control of muscles below the level of injury, necessitating careful integration of FES with intact voluntary motor function for efficient walking. The FES-assisted stepping can be triggered automatically at a fixed rate (autotrigger), by a manual switch (switch-trigger), or by an electromyogram-based gait-event-detector (EMG-trigger). It has been postulated that EMG may be a more natural command source than manual switches, and therefore will enable better coordination of stimulated and volitional motor functions necessary during gait. In this study, the above stated hypothesis was investigated in two volunteers with iSCI during the over-ground FES-assisted gait initiation. Four able-bodied volunteers provided the normative data for comparison. The EMG-triggered FES-assisted gait initiation was found to be more coordinated and dynamically more stable than autotriggered and switch-triggered cases. This highlighted the potential of surface EMG as a natural command interface to better coordinate stimulated and volitional muscle activities during gait.

Ambulation after incomplete spinal cord injury with EMG-triggered functional electrical stimulation.

Individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI) retain some control of the partially paralyzed muscles, necessitating careful integration of functional electrical stimulation (FES) with intact motor function. In this communication, the volitional surface electromyogram (sEMG) from partially paralyzed muscle was used to detect the intent to step in an iSCI volunteer. The classifier was able to trigger the FES-assisted swing phase with a false positive rate less than 1% and true positive rate of 82% for left foot-off (FO) and 83% for right FO over 110 steps taken during three testing sessions spread over a week.

Ambulation after incomplete spinal cord injury with electromyogram-triggered functional electrical stimulation.

Ambulation after spinal cord injury is possible with the aid of functional electrical stimulation (FES). Individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI) retain partial volitional control of muscles below the level of injury, necessitating careful integration of FES with intact voluntary motor function for efficient walking. In this study, the surface electromyogram (sEMG) of the volitionally controlled Erector Spinae was used to detect the intent to step and trigger FES-assisted walking in a volunteer with iSCI via 8-channel implanted stimulation system. The inference system was able to trigger the FES-assisted swing-phase of gait with a false positive rate of 1% during over ground ambulation on a level surface. The performance of the sEMG inference system highlights its potential as a natural command interface to better coordinate stimulated and volitional muscle activities than conventional manual switches and facilitate FES-assisted community ambulation.