The secoiridoid profile of virgin olive oil conditions phenolic metabolism.

The European Food Safety Authority highlights the beneficial effects of olive oil phenols, mainly, secoiridoids. Nevertheless, the metabolism of secoiridoids in humans has not been fully elucidated. This research evaluated the metabolism of secoiridoids in humans after intake of olive oils with diverse phenolic profiles. For this purpose, three extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) were ingested by six volunteers at scheduled meals, and urine samples were collected the following morning for subsequent LC-MS/MS analysis. Using untargeted analysis, urinary metabolites revealed representative patterns associated with the various olive oil phenolic contents in absolute and relative terms. We were able to identify metabolites obtained through phase I, phase II, and microbial metabolism with discrimination between tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol derivatives. Metabolism of phenols is differentially activated as a function of the olive oil secoiridoids content, and this proof-of-concept study shows how urinary metabolites represent olive oil phenolic content.

Bioactivity of some Apiaceae essential oils and their constituents against Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Sitophilus zeamais is a key pest of stored grains. Its control is made, usually, using synthetic insecticides, despite their negative impacts. Botanical insecticides with fumigant/repellent properties may offer an alternative solution. This work describes the effects of Anethum graveolens, Petroselinum crispum, Foeniculum vulgare and Cuminum cyminum essential oils (EOs) and (S)-carvone, cuminaldehyde, estragole and (+)-fenchone towards adults of S. zeamais. Acute toxicity was assessed by fumigation and topical application. Repellence was evaluated by an area preference bioassay and two-choice test, using maize grains. LC50 determined by fumigation ranged from 51.8 to 535.8 mg L-1 air, with (S)-carvone being the most active. LD50 values for topical applications varied from 23 to 128 µg per adult for (S)-carvone > cuminaldehyde > A. graveolens > C. cyminum > P. crispum. All EOs/standard compounds reduced significantly the percentage of insects attracted to maize grains (65-80%) in the two-choice repellence test, whereas in the area preference bioassay RD50 varied from 1.4 to 45.2 µg cm-2, with cuminaldehyde, (S)-carvone and estragole being strongly repellents. Petroselinum crispum EO and cuminaldehyde affected the nutritional parameters relative growth rate, efficiency conversion index of ingested food and antifeeding effect, displaying antinutritional effects toward S. zeamais. In addition, P. crispum and C. cyminum EOs, as well as cuminaldehyde, showed the highest acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity in vitro (IC50 = 185, 235 and 214.5 µg mL-1, respectively). EOs/standard compounds exhibited acute toxicity, and some treatments showed antinutritional effects towards S. zeamais. Therefore, the tested plant products might be good candidates to be considered to prevent damages caused by this pest.

[Management of heart failure in cardiology and primary care (MICCAP) program: Improving the management of patients with heart failure]. / Programa MICCAP (Manejo de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca en Cardiología y en Atención Primaria): mejorando el manejo del paciente con insuficiencia cardiaca.

Despite current treatments, morbidity and mortality of patients with heart failure remain high. The late diagnosis of heart failure, the insufficient heart failure treatment (i.e. not using the appropriate drugs, prescribing lower doses of drugs than recommended, etc.), and a poor coordination between different health care levels, may explain, at least in part, these figures. The Management of Heart Failure in Cardiology and Primary Care (MICCAP) program has been developed with the aim of optimising the integrated management of patients with heart failure between Primary Care and Cardiology, through the improvement of coordination between both health care levels. This includes continuous medical education to reinforce the diagnostic and therapeutic skills of general practitioners in the field of heart failure. The rationale and objectives of the MICCAP program are summarised in this article.

Scheduled meal accelerates entrainment to a 6-h phase advance by shifting central and peripheral oscillations in rats.

Travelling across several time zones requires a fast adjustment of the circadian system and the differential adjustment speeds of organs and systems results in what is commonly referred as jet lag. During this transitory state of circadian disruption, individuals feel discomfort, appetite loss, fatigue, disturbed sleep and deficient performance of multiple tasks. We have demonstrated that after a 6-h phase advance of the light-dark cycle (LD) scheduled food in phase with the new night onset can speed up re-entrainment. In this study, we explored the possible mechanisms underlying the fast re-entrainment due to the feeding schedule. We focused on first- and second-order structures that provide metabolic information to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). We compared (i) control rats without change in LD cycle; (ii) rats exposed to a 6-h phase advance of the LD cycle with food ad libitum; and (iii) rats exposed to the 6-h phase advance combined with food access in phase with the new night. We found an immediate synchronizing effect of food on stomach distention and on c-Fos expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract, arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus. These observations indicate that in a model of jet lag, scheduled feeding can favour an immediate shift in first- and second-order relays to the SCN and that by keeping feeding schedules coupled to the new night, a fast re-entrainment may be achieved by shifting peripheral and extra-SCN oscillations.

De los ensayos clínicos a la práctica clínica. Evidencias con rivaroxaban en el tratamiento anticoagulante del paciente con fibrilación auricular no valvular / From clinical trials to clinical practice. Experience with rivaroxaban in the anticoagulant treatment of patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation

A pesar de que la información proporcionada por los ensayos clínicos es importante, existen diferencias relevantes entre los pacientes incluidos en los ensayos clínicos y los pacientes de la consulta diaria. En consecuencia, en algunos casos los resultados de los ensayos clínicos no se podrían trasladar directamente a los pacientes en la práctica clínica. En este contexto, la realización de registros en «la vida real» es fundamental. En ROCKET-AF, rivaroxaban, un anticoagulante oral de acción directa de toma única diaria, fue al menos tan eficaz como warfarina en la prevención del ictus o embolismo sistémico, con tasas similares de sangrados mayores, pero con un menor riesgo de hemorragias intracraneales, críticas y mortales. En los últimos años, diferentes registros han confirmado que rivaroxaban es eficaz e incluso más seguro en los pacientes de la vida real que en ROCKET-AF. El objetivo de esta revisión es actualizar la evidencia actual sobre la eficacia, la efectividad y la seguridad de rivaroxaban en pacientes de la vida real (AU)

Despite the information provided by clinical trials is important, there are relevant clinical differences between those patients included in clinical trials and data of daily outpatient clinics. As a result, in some cases, the results of randomized clinical trials could not be directly applied to clinical practice. In this context, to perform «real-life» registries is mandatory. In the ROCKET-AF study, rivaroxaban, a once-daily direct oral anticoagulant, was at least as effective as warfarin for preventing stroke or systemic embolism, with similar rates of major bleeding, but with a lesser risk of intracranial, critical and fatal bleedings. In the last years, different large registries have confirmed that rivaroxaban is effective and even safer in real-life patients than in ROCKET-AF. The aim of this review is to update the current evidence about the efficacy, effectiveness and safety of rivaroxaban in real-life patients (AU)

[From clinical trials to clinical practice. Experience with rivaroxaban in the anticoagulant treatment of patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation]. / De los ensayos clínicos a la práctica clínica. Evidencias con rivaroxaban en el tratamiento anticoagulante del paciente con fibrilación auricular no valvular.

Despite the information provided by clinical trials is important, there are relevant clinical differences between those patients included in clinical trials and data of daily outpatient clinics. As a result, in some cases, the results of randomized clinical trials could not be directly applied to clinical practice. In this context, to perform «real-life¼ registries is mandatory. In the ROCKET-AF study, rivaroxaban, a once-daily direct oral anticoagulant, was at least as effective as warfarin for preventing stroke or systemic embolism, with similar rates of major bleeding, but with a lesser risk of intracranial, critical and fatal bleedings. In the last years, different large registries have confirmed that rivaroxaban is effective and even safer in real-life patients than in ROCKET-AF. The aim of this review is to update the current evidence about the efficacy, effectiveness and safety of rivaroxaban in real-life patients.

Characterization of lemon (Citrus limon) polar extract by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in high resolution mode.

Eighty four metabolites (32 flavonoids, 15 amino acids, nine carboxylic acids, six coumarins, six sugars, five phenolic acids and 11 unclassified compounds) have been tentatively identified in a polar extract from lemon, without reference standards, based on their liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight MS/MS spectra and the comparison with databases. Despite information in databases for some families of plant compounds is poor, tentative identification based on MS/MS information (mass of the precursor ion and their fragments, together with neutral mass loss) was possible with the help of known fragmentation patterns for the given families of compounds. Both positive and negative ionization modes and at least two collision energies were always applied to obtain as much information as possible from each molecular entity, thus helping for identification. As the tentatively identified metabolites are the same regardless of the organism they belong, their fragmentation patterns are useful for identification with independence of the sample nature.

Comparison of direct and indirect estimates of apparent total tract digestibility in swine with effort to reduce variation by pooling of multiple day fecal samples.

The intent of this study was to establish a fecal sampling procedure for the indicator method (IM) to provide digestibility values similar to those obtained by the total collection (TC) method. A total of 24 pigs (52.6 ± 1.5 kg) were fed 1 of 4 diets with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of virginiamycin and phytase (PHY) added to a corn-soybean meal diet with no inorganic P supplement. Pigs were housed in metabolism crates for a 5-d TC period after 7 d of adaptation. Immediately after the TC, a fecal collection period followed, using the IM by including 0.25% of Cr2O3 in the feed for 10 d. Fecal collection for the IM started the day after diets containing Cr2O3 were first fed, and continued for 9 consecutive days with a single grab sample per day. Similar portions of feces from d 5 to 9 were also composited into 4 samples to evaluate multi-day pooling combinations. Highly variable means and CV among samples for apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) were observed at d 1 and 2 using the IM. The mean ATTD for DM, GE, and nutrients appeared to be stabilized by d 5 or 6 in all dietary treatments. The TC data seemed to have lower CV than the IM data for many components. Based on the linear broken-line analysis, fecal Cr concentration plateaued at d 3.75 (P < 0.001) after the first feeding of Cr. Mean ATTD values by the IM were lower than those by the TC method for DM (P < 0.05), GE (P < 0.01), P (P < 0.01), and Ca (P < 0.001). The PHY supplementation improved ATTD of P (P < 0.001) and Ca (P < 0.001) in both collection methods, whereas the PHY effect on ATTD of DM was observed only for the IM (P < 0.05). Differences related to PHY effect on ATTD were detected from d 4 to 9 in a single grab sample for P and DM but the ATTD of DM had inconsistent P-values by day. Fecal sampling after 4 d of initial feeding of marker always allowed detection of treatment effects on ATTD of P but not on ATTD of DM. Results indicated that the IM results in lower digestibility values than the TC method and does not provide the same treatment difference as the TC digestibility for energy and nutrients that are not highly impacted by the dietary treatment. For the IM, ATTD values and fecal Cr concentration stabilize at least on d 5 after initial feeding of diets containing Cr2O3. At least 2-d pooling of feces for the IM appears to be needed to provide greater accuracy and lower variations than a single grab sample.

Food-entrained patterns in orexin cells reveal subregion differential activation.

Rats under a restricted feeding schedule develop food anticipatory activity 2-3h prior food access, characterized by increased arousal, foraging and exploratory behavior. This anticipatory behavior is not observed when rodents are allowed ad libitum food access and reappears for several cycles when food-entrained animals are fasted. Previously we reported that food entrainment also produces increased expression of c-Fos protein in the dorsomedial nucleus (DMH), in the perifornical area (PeF) and in the lateral hypothalamic area (LH) anticipating food intake. These hypothalamic structures contain abundant orexin (ORX) producing neurons and promote arousal, reward and metabolic balance, thus we explored the participation of the orexinergic system in food-entrainment by evaluating in food entrained rats (RF) the expression of c-Fos in ORX cells in anticipation, during and after food access, and in rats exhibiting persistent activation in fasting after interruption of the food-entrainment protocol (RF-Fast). Data were compared with ad libitum controls and with a 22-h fasted group. RF rats exhibited a food-entrained rhythm of c-Fos in ORX cells in the DMH, LH and PeF with highest levels at the time of meal delivery and after food ingestion. In RF-Fast rats the food-entrained pattern of ORX cells persisted in the PeF and LH and partially in the DMH, which in addition exhibited an earlier activation. We conclude that ORX cells in PeF and LH exhibit self sustained oscillations driven by food-entrainment, whereas the DMH may mediate arousal mechanisms that elicit anticipatory activity.

Differential effects of a restricted feeding schedule on clock-gene expression in the hypothalamus of the rat.

Restricted feeding schedules (RFS) entrain digestive, hormonal, and metabolic functions as well as oscillations of clock genes, such as Per1 and Per2, in peripheral organs. In the brain, in particular the hypothalamus, RFS induce and shift daily rhythms of Per1 and Per2 expression. To determine whether RFS affect clock genes in extra-SCN oscillators in a uniform manner, the present study investigated daily rhythms of Per1, Per2, and Bmal1 expression in various hypothalamic regions. Wistar rats were entrained to daily RFS (2 h food access starting at ZT6, RFS) or fed ad libitum (C) for three weeks. Brains were sampled every 3 h starting at ZT0, and were processed with in situ hybridization. In response to RFS, Per1 expression showed a 3 h phase advance in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), while Per2 and Bmal1 remained unaffected. Per1 was triggered at ZT6, anticipating food access in both arcuate (ARC) and dorsomedial nuclei (DMH), and was unaffected in the ventromedial (VMH) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei. In contrast, Per2 expression during RFS showed a marked postprandial peak in the PVN, was unchanged in the ARC, and was down-regulated in the DMH and VMH. The temporal patterns of Bmal1 expression were not significantly modified in RFS rats. RFS differentially affected clock-gene expression (phase change, up- or downregulation) depending on the combination of hypothalamic nuclei and targeted genes. Present data highlight that metabolic or temporal cues elicited by feeding modify the temporal organization in the hypothalamus and are not exclusive for a food-entrained oscillator.

Asociación entre rendimiento en práctica profesional y dos sistemas de calificación de capacidades terminales en estudiantes de Kinesiología de la Universidad Católica del Maule / Association between performance practice and two rating systems capabilities terminals

El estudio estableció la asociación entre el rendimiento que existe en el Internado Clínico y dos sistemas de calificación de capacidades terminales. Sujetos: Participaron un total de 38 internos (23 mujeres) pertecientes al curso Internado Clínico que rotaron por 5 períodos de 2 meses cada uno. Métodos: Se aplicó sistemáticamente durante el año 2008 la Pauta de Evaluación de Internado Clínico calculándose el promedio de los 5 períodos (PI5), además se consideró la nota del examen tradicional al final del período (MT) y el número de competencias obtenidas por la Rúbrica de Evaluación de Competencias (REC). Cada producto fue analizado a través de las mediciones de tendencia central y posteriormente se procedió a la determinación de la relación con r de Pearson, Coeficientes de Variación y análisis de Gráfico, estableciendo la significancia estadística en un p<0.05. Resultados: Existe asociación entre PI5 y MT con intensidad regular (r=0.41; p=0.009), no se observó correlación significativa entre PI5 y REC, sin embargo con promedios superiores a 5,5 emergió correlación significativa con REC (r=0.5;p<0.05), finalmente no existe correlación entre MT y REC . El coheficiente de variación de MT, PI5 y REC fue de 15,6 - 4,8 y 27,5 por ciento respectivamente. Conclusión: Las mediciones tradicionales no presentan correlación con REC, lo que en un marco de innovación curricular significa que a través de esas metodologías de evaluación no podemos determinar las competencias que exiben nuestro internos.

The study established the association between performance that exists in the Clinical Internship, and two rating systems capabilities terminals. Subjects: a total of 38 inmates (23 females) belonging to the Clinical Courses were rotated for 5 periods of 2 months each. Methods: We performed routinely during the year 2008, the Guideline on Clinical Evaluation of Internship calculated the average of 5 periods (5P) also considered the note of the traditional final examination period (TF) and the number of kills acquired by Heading Skills assessment (HAS). Each product was analyzed through the measurements od central tendency and then proceeded to the determination of the Pearson r, coefficient of variation and analysis of graphs, in establishing the statistical significance p<0.05. Results:A relationship exists between TF and 5P and HAS, but with averages above 5.5 emerged significant correlation with HAS (r=0.5;p<0.05) and finally there is no correlation between TF and HAS. The coefficient of variation of TF, and , 5Pand HAS was 15.6-4.8 and 27.5 percent respectively. Conclusion: The traditional measurements do not show correlation with HAS, which in a contex of curriculum innovation means that through these assessment methodologies can not determine the competencies that our internal display.

Daño y reparación muscular por sobrecarga / Repair of muscle damage due to overload

El daño muscular inducido por sobrecarga es frecuente. Los estudios de estructura y función han configurado dos vertientes que intentan aclarar sus mecanismos. La primera se entiende con la generación de excesivas tensiones en elongación por estrés mecánico, reconocidas como las responsables del daño estructural del músculo, involucrando a proteínas tales como Titina, Desmina y Distrofina. La segunda provocada a partir de la alteración en la regulación intracelular del calcio por estrés metabólico, activando proteasas como Calpaína 3, fosfolipasas y especies reactivas de oxígeno. Una vez gatillados estos procesos, se inician una serie de eventos que inducen la reparación con la activación de factores de transcripción, miogénicos y de respuesta al estrés, mientras que la regeneración se caracteriza por la síntesis y la remodelación tisular.

Muscle damage by overload is frequent. Structural and functional studies oriented to clarify the mechanisms involved in this process have raised two possible and complementary explanations. The first one refers to the generation of a large tension by mechanical stress, wich could be responsible of the structural damage of the muscle and involve proteins such as Titina, Desmina and Dystrophin. The second one is originated by changes in the regulation of intracellular calcium concentration as a consequence of the metabolic stress of the fibre and subsequent activation of proteases like Calpain 3, phospholipases and reactive oxygen species. Once triggered these processes, are initiated a series of events that induce the repair with activation transcription, miogenic and stress factors, while regeneration is characterized the synthesis an tissue remodelation.

Entrainment by a palatable meal induces food-anticipatory activity and c-Fos expression in reward-related areas of the brain.

Rats maintained under restricted feeding schedules (RFS) develop food-anticipatory activity and entrainment of physiological parameters. Food entrainment is independent of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and depends on food-entrainable oscillators (FEO). Restricted feeding schedules lead animals toward a catabolic state and to increase their food driven motivation, suggesting that in this process metabolic- and reward-related mechanisms are implicated. This study explored if motivation driven by a palatable meal is sufficient to produce food-entrainment. To address this question, we evaluated whether daily fixed access to a highly palatable meal entrained (PME) locomotor activity, serum glucose and free fatty acids concentrations in rats maintained without food deprivation. The entrained response of PME rats was compared with rats entrained to RFS. In a second experiment, we used c-Fos-IR to identify structures in the central nervous system involved with PME. Rats showed anticipatory activity to a daily palatable meal, with a lower intensity than rats entrained to RFS. Anticipatory activity persisted at least for four cycles after interrupting palatable meal, suggesting that this persistence depends on an endogenous oscillator. Glucose and free fatty acids were not entrained in PME rats. c-Fos expression in limbic system nuclei was in phase with PME time, but not in the hypothalamus. Results suggest 1) that food deprivation, i.e. a catabolic state is not necessary for the expression of anticipatory activity; 2) that an increase in the motivational state due to taste and/or nutritional contents of palatable meal is sufficient to entrain behavior; and 3) that structures in the limbic system are involved in this entrainment process. The present study indicates that metabolic and motivational mechanisms are involved in food entrainment, and suggests that the FEO may be a multi-oscillatory system distributed over different regulatory systems in the brain.

Pruebas funcionales en pediatría: teoría y aplicaciones clínicas / Functional tests in pediatrics: theory and clinical applications

En el ámbito kinésico pediátrico, existen diversas condiciones clínicas que determinan limitaciones funcionales que afectan la calidad de vida de los niños. La valoración del impacto funcional de una enfermedad aguda o crónica representa un campo práctico propio de la kinesiterapia que requiere un mayor desarrollo en sus aspectos teóricos y prácticos. Las pruebas funcionales tienen la ventaja de ser económicos, válidos y confiables, y de aportar información relevante para el terapéuta, el paciente y su familia. La evaluación según objetivos, correcta selección de la prueba funcional y adecuada interpretación de los datos, forman parte de un modelo de acción que se acerca al paradigma de la función como eje de acción profesional. En la presente comunicación se analizan antecedentes teóricos y aplicaciones prácticas generales para las pruebas funcionales, y en particular para 5 pruebas aplicables a la población pediátrica.

Selection and implementation for coagulation instruments/reagents in a multiple hospital/clinic network.

Selection, standardization, and implementation of instrumentation and reagents throughout a health care facility network can often be a difficult process. However, in today's ever-changing health care setting, it is often mandated. The Veteran's Integrated Systems Network 16 (VISN 16) was faced with such a task early in 1999, with the targeted area being its coagulation laboratories. The plan outlined in this paper was drafted to help facilitate the selection, standardization and implementation of coagulation systems for 17 health care facilities that make up the VISN 16 network. The VISN, encompassing 170,000 square miles, has 10 tertiary care hospitals, six of which have close relationships with affiliate universities. There are 299,733 patients enrolled in this health delivery system. The facilities range from large institutions performing both tertiary and outpatient care to small outpatient clinics. Because of the plan's detailed, comprehensive content, which included analyses of a large number of performance parameters as well as cost-efficiency, the selection process was carried out using a checklist that could be helpful to other organizations selecting equipment and reagents for coagulation studies. An implementation process was devised, resulting in coagulation standardization across the Integrated Health Network.

Isolation of the LEMMI9 gene and promoter analysis during a compatible plant-nematode interaction.

Plant-endoparasitic root-knot nematodes feed on specialized giant cells that they induce in the vascular cylinder of susceptible plants. Although it has been established that a number of plant genes change their expression pattern during giant cell differentiation, virtually no data are available about the mechanisms involved in that change. One possibility is differential promoter recognition by the transcription factor(s) responsible for the expression of specific genes. We have isolated and characterized a genomic clone from tomato containing the promoter region of LEMMI9, one of the few plant genes that have been reported to be highly expressed in galls (predominantly in giant cells). The analysis of transgenic potato plants carrying a LEMMI9 promoter-beta glucuronidase (GUS) fusion has demonstrated that the tomato promoter was activated in Meloidogyne incognita-induced galls in a heterologous system. We have located putative regulatory sequences in the promoter and have found that nuclear proteins from the galls formed specific DNA-protein complexes with the proximal region of the LEMMI9 promoter. The nuclear protein-binding sequence mapped to a region of 111 bp immediately upstream from the TATA box. This region contains a 12-bp repeat possibly involved in the formation of DNA-protein complexes, which might be related to the LEMMI9 transcriptional activation in the giant cells.

Organization of circadian rhythmicity and suprachiasmatic nuclei in malnourished rats.

The present study was aimed at characterizing the effects of low-protein malnutrition (6% casein) on the circadian rhythm of drinking behavior and on suprachiasmatic nuclei immunohistochemistry in Sprague-Dawley rats. Recordings were started at 30 days of age under a 12:12-h light-dark (LD) cycle. At age 150 days, recordings were continued under constant dim red light, and finally the latency to entrain to complete and skeleton photoperiods was established. At the end of the recordings rats were processed for histological analysis. Compared with their controls, malnournished rats exhibited 1) splitting of rhythmicity under LD that 2) condensed to one component in constant dim red light, 3) delayed entrainment to skeleton photoperiod, and 4) precocious entrainment under complete photoperiod. Immunohistochemical analysis showed mainly a decrease in the immunohistochemical detection of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and glial fibrillar acid protein cells in malnourished animals. These results indicate that in malnourished rats there is a decrease 1) in the coupling force among the oscillators and 2) in the strength of the phase lock between the oscillators and the light-dark cycle.

Photosynthetic electron transport regulates the expression of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase genes in Arabidopsis during excess light stress.

Exposure of Arabidopsis plants that were maintained under low light (200 mumol of photons m-2 sec-1) to excess light (2000 mumol of photons m-2 sec-1) for 1 hr caused reversible photoinhibition of photosynthesis. Measurements of photosynthetic parameters and the use of electron transport inhibitors indicated that a novel signal transduction pathway was initiated at plastoquinone and regulated, at least in part, by the redox status of the plastoquinone pool. This signal, which preceded the photooxidative burst of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) associated with photoinhibition of photosynthesis, resulted in a rapid increase (within 15 min) in mRNA levels of two cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase genes (APX1 and APX2). Treatment of leaves with exogenous reduced glutathione abolished this signal, suggesting that glutathione or the redox status of the glutathione pool has a regulatory impact on this signaling pathway. During recovery from photooxidative stress, transcripts for cytosolic glutathione reductase (GOR2) increased, emphasizing the role of glutathione in this stress.