Antifungal Activity of Medicinal Mushrooms and Optimization of Submerged Culture Conditions for Schizophyllum commune (Agaricomycetes).

The main goal of the present study was the exploration of the antifungal properties of Agaricomycetes mushrooms. Among twenty-three tested mushrooms against A. niger, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, and G. bidwellii, Schizophyllum commune demonstrated highest inhibition rates and showed 35.7%, 6.5%, 50.4%, and 66.0% of growth inhibition, respectively. To reveal culture conditions enhancing the antifungal potential of Sch. commune, several carbon (lignocellulosic substrates among them) and nitrogen sources and their optimal concentrations were investigated. Presence of 6% mandarin juice production waste (MJPW) and 6% of peptone in nutrient medium promoted antifungal activity of selected mushroom. It was determined that, extracts obtained in the presence of MJPW effectively inhibited the grow of pathogenic fungi. Moreover, the content of phenolic compounds in the extracts obtained from Sch. commune grown on MJPW was several times higher (0.87 ± 0.05 GAE/g to 2.38 ± 0.08 GAE/g) than the extracts obtained from the mushroom grown on the synthetic (glycerol contained) nutrient medium (0.21 ± 0.03 GAE/g to 0.88 ± 0.05 GAE/g). Flavonoid contents in the extracts from Sch. commune varied from 0.58 ± 0.03 to 27.2 ± 0.8 mg QE/g. Identification of phenolic compounds composition in water and ethanol extracts were provided by mass spectrometry analysis. Extracts demonstrate considerable free radical scavenging activities and the IC50 values were generally low for the extracts, ranging from 1.9 mg/ml to 6.7 mg/ml. All the samples displayed a positive correlation between their concentration (0.05-15.0 mg/ml) and DPPH radical scavenging activity. This investigation revealed that Sch. commune mushroom has great potential to be used as a source of antifungal and antioxidant substances.

Mushroom-Based Supplements in Italy: Let's Open Pandora's Box.

Mushrooms and derivates are well known to the scientific community for having different health benefits and exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities, including lipid-lowering, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antimicrobic, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, immunomodulating, neuroprotective and osteoprotective actions. In Europe, medical mushrooms are mainly marketed in the form of food supplements as single components or combined with other nutraceuticals. In this context, the first peculiarity that distinguishes it is the safety established through the "history of consumption" that characterizes that mushroom. However, the cultivation of medicinal mushrooms on a large scale is performed mainly in China, where most of the production facilities do not have internationally recognized good manufacturing practices, despite that many European companies that sell myotherapies are supplied by Chinese manufacturers. This is particularly evident in Italy, where an arsenal of mushroom products is marketed in the form of powders and extracts not always of ascertained origin and sometimes of doubtful taxonomic identification, and thus not meeting the quality criteria required. The growing interest in mycotherapy involves a strong commitment from the scientific community to propose supplements of safe origin and genetic purity as well as to promote clinical trials to evaluate its real effects on humans. The purpose of this research is to analyze different mushroom-based dietary supplements used in medicine as monotherapy on the Italian market and to evaluate their composition and quality. The molecular identification of the sequences with those deposited in GenBank allowed for identifying 6 out of 19 samples, matching with those deposited belonging to the species indicated in the label, i.e., Lentinula edodes (samples 1, 4, 12 and 18) and Ganoderma lucidum (samples 5 and 10). Samples containing Ganoderma, labeled in the commercial product as G. lucidum, showed sequences that showed homology of 100% and 99% with G. resinaceum and G. sichuanense. An additional investigation was carried out in order to determine the active fungal ingredients, such as ergosterol, aflatoxins, heavy metals, nicotine and total glucan. The results obtained and shown in the manuscript highlight how the data were not only in line with what is expected with respect to what is indicated in the labels.

The Role of Medicinal Mushrooms in Brain Cancer Therapies: Review.

Medicinal mushrooms are considered an unlimited source of polysaccharides (mainly ß-glucans) and polysaccharide-protein complexes and possess various immunological and anticancer properties. In addition, their use in integrative medicine leads to a clear reduction of side effects in patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy. The literature reports a number of beneficial effects of using mushrooms as health supplements in patients affected by high-grade glioma. The effects of medicinal mushrooms on side effects in patients with brain cancer and a case study report are also described in this review.

JNK pathway and heat shock response mediate the survival of C26 colon carcinoma bearing mice fed with the mushroom Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii without affecting tumor growth or cachexia.

In the last few years, there has been emerging interest in developing treatments against human diseases using natural bioactive content. Here, the powder of the edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii was mixed with the normal diet of mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma. Interestingly, it was evidenced by a significant increase in the survival rate of C26 tumor-bearing mice accompanied by a significant increase in Hsp90 and Hsp27 protein levels in the tumors. These data were paralleled by a decrease in Hsp60 levels. The mushroom introduced in the diet induced the inhibition of the transcription of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1 exerting an anti-inflammatory action. The effects of the mushroom were mediated by the activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases as a result of metabolic stress induced by the micronutrients introduced in the diet. In the tumors of C26 bearing mice fed with Pleurotus eryngii there was also a decreased expression of the mitotic regulator survivin and the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL as well as an increase in the expression levels of Atg7, a protein that drives autophagy. In our hypothesis the interplay of these molecules favored the survival of the mice fed with the mushroom. These data are promising for the introduction of Pleurotus eryngii as a dietary supplement or as an adjuvant in anti-cancer therapy.

Polysaccharides from Pleurotus eryngii var. elaeoselini (Agaricomycetes), a New Potential Culinary-Medicinal Oyster Mushroom from Italy.

Three water-soluble glucans (PELPS-A1, PELPS-A2, and PELPS-A3) purified from the hot water extract of the basidiomata of an edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii var. elaeoselini by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose 32 and Sephadex G-100 column were found to consist of only D-glucose as monosaccharide constituent. Structural investigation was carried out by acid hydrolysis, periodate oxidation, and NMR experiments (1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, DQF-COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, HMQC, and HMBC). On the basis of these experiments, the structures of the repeating unit of the three isolated polysaccharides were established as follows: (1) PELPS-A1: {[→3)-α-D-Glcp-(1→]3→4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→2)-α-D-Glcp-(1→6)-α-D-Glcp-(1[→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(1→]2}n 6 ↑ 1 α-D-Glcp (2) PELPS-A2: [→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(1→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(1→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(1→]n 3 ↑ 1 ß-D-Glcp (3) PELPS-A3: [→6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→]n The dried basidiomata of P. eryngii var. elaoselini were tested for their antioxidant activity by DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays. The crude extract has shown a SC50 of 1.4 mg/mL for DPPH test while a SC50 of 5.7 mg/mL was observed for hydroxyl radical scavenging activity test. The antioxidant activity of PELPS-A1, PELPS-A2, and PELPS-A3, evaluated as hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, was similar and significant, suggesting their use as antioxidants.

Medicinal Mushrooms as Part of the "Third Mission" Activities of Univesities - A Science to Business Initiative Related to Mycotherapy.

In Italy, the National Agency for the Evaluation of the University System and Research (ANVUR) carries out a systematic evaluation of the "Third Mission" activities of universities and research bodies. In this perspective, universities already engaged in research on medicinal mushrooms and on their potential applications in the industrial sector set the frame for collaboration with large, well-reputed private companies. In Italy, one of the major problems of mycotherapy is related to lack of certification and the dubious origin/identity of mushroom extracts used by the industry. Hence, products deriving from medicinal mushrooms that are in trade do not often meet the required quality criteria. In this paper, a multipartner collaboration is presented, which aims at the bottom to top development of nutraceutical products from Pleurotus mushrooms in agreement to science-to-business (S2B) marketing.

The Potential Role of Medicinal Mushrooms in the Prevention and Treatment of Gynecological Cancers: A Review.

A review of scientific information about the potential role of medicinal mushrooms in the prevention and treatment of gynecological cancers, human immunodeficiency virus, and human papillomavirus infections is reported here. The results of in vivo and in vitro experiments on 16 different species of Basidiomycetes and three Ascomycetes, which possess chemopreventive potential and are effective in clinical application in combination with chemotherapy, are also discussed. Medicinal mushroom extracts confirm an evident efficacy on the reduction of tumor cell proliferation and side effects in patients with gynecological tumors who are undergoing chemotherapy treatments. This review, the first on the use of medicinal mushrooms in the prevention and treatment of gynecological cancers, aims to highlight the remarkable potential of mushrooms in integrated oncology.

Effects of Diets Supplemented with Medicinal Mushroom Myceliated Grains on Some Production, Health, and Oxidation Traits of Dairy Ewes.

The beneficial properties of mushrooms' bioactive compounds indicate their potential for use as performance-enhancing natural additives for livestock animals. A study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of diets supplemented with mushroom myceliated grains (MMGs) fed to dairy ewes on intestinal parasite load, milk production, milk fatty acid (FA) composition, and cheese oxidative stability. During an 8-week experimental period, 21 lactating Valle del Belice ewes were divided into 3 groups named MMG20, MMG10, and MMG0. Ewes in each group were fed hay ad libitum and 1.3 kg/day/head of 1 of 3 concentrates with MMGs at 20% (MMG20), 10% (MMG10), or 0% (MMG0). The ewes fed MMG20 had comparable dry matter (DM) and nutrients intake, fewer intestinal parasite infections, a tendency toward higher milk yield, and higher milk casein content (4.78% in MMG20 vs. 4.32% in MMG10 and 4.27% in MMG0; P < 0.05), and they produced cheese with less intense yellow color and a lower secondary lipid oxidation, than the ewes in the MMG10 and MMG0 groups. A higher antioxidant capacity was observed (17.83 mmol Trolox equivalent/kg DM in the MMG20 group vs. 9.97 and 9.18 mmol Trolox equivalent/kg DM in the MMG10 and MMG0 groups, respectively; P < 0.001), suggesting a higher oxidative stability of cheese fat and a probable enrichment of cheese with antioxidant compounds inherent in or induced by MMGs. The inclusion of MMGs in the diet did not affect the amounts of health-promoting polyunsaturated FAs in milk, with the exception of n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid, which was found only in milk from the MMG-treated ewes. These promising results merit further investigation into the potential use of medicinal mushrooms to enhance animal health and production.

Structural Characterization of Polysaccharides of a Productive Strain of the Culinary-Medicinal King Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus eryngii (Agaricomycetes), from Italy.

A preliminary biological investigation of the dry basidiomata of strain C-142-c of Pleurotus eryngii has shown significant antioxidant activity. Two different polysaccharides (PEPS-A1 and PEPS-A2) were isolated from the cultivated edible mushroom, P. eryngii C-142-c strain. Based on acid hydrolysis, methylation analysis, and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments (1H, 13C, distortionless enhancement by polarization transfer, double quantum filtered correlation spectroscopy, total correlation spectroscopy, nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy, heteronuclear single-quantum correlation spectroscopy, and heteronuclear multiple-bond correlation spectroscopy), the structures of the repeating unit of PEPS-A1 and PEPS-A2 were established as follows: (l)PEPS-Al (α-glucan): [→6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→6)-α-D-Glcp-(l→]n; and (2) PEPS-A2 (ß-glucan): [→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(1→6)-ß-D-Glcp-(l→]n. The antioxidant activity of PEPS-A1 and PEPS-A2 was evaluated as hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. PEPS-A1 and PEPS-A2 showed SC50 values of 400 µg/mL and 122 µg/mL, respectively, suggesting their possible use as a dietary supplement in functional foods. The polysaccharides were tested for their activity on cell viability using a colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HT-29). Both polysaccharides affected cell viability after 48 and 72 hours of treatment, inducing the death of 50% of HT-29 cells between 0.25 and 1 µg/mL and between 0.5 and 1 µg/mL, respectively, for PEPS-A1 and PEPS-A2. These results are promising for future applications of these mushroom-derived polysaccharides as antioxidants and antitumor agents.

Mycotheca of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms at Herbarium SAF as a Potential Source of Nutraceuticals and Cultivated Mushrooms.

Basidiomycetes strains (n = 39) belonging to 9 genera in 8 families are kept in the mycotheca of the Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences at the University of Palermo (Palermo, Italy). All of the strains are medicinal mushrooms, and some are of great commercial and nutraceutical interest.

Antibacterial Activity of Desert Truffles from Saudi Arabia Against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Medicinal mushrooms represent an unlimited source of polysaccharides with nutritional, antitumoral, antibacterial, and immune-stimulating properties. Traditional studies of epigeous higher Basidiomycetes have recently been joined by studies of hypogeous fungi and, in particular, of so-called desert truffles. With the aim to obtain novel agents against bacteria of clinical importance, we focused on the edible desert truffle mushrooms Tirmania pinoyi, Terfezia claveryi, and Picoa juniperi as sources of new antimicrobial agents. In particular, we investigated the in vitro antibacterial activity of acid-soluble protein extracts (aqueous extracts) of these 3 species against the Gram-positive human pathogenic reference strain Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and the Gram-negative strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442. The acid-soluble protein extracts of T. pinoyi and T. claveryi showed minimum inhibitory concentrations of 50 µg/mL against tested pathogens. We believe that such preliminary results are promising to obtain a valuable antibiotic alternative to fight antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

Taxonomic Identity, Geographic Distribution, and Commercial Exploitation of the Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom Pleurotus nebrodensis (Basidiomycetes).

An updated overview of the outcome of studies conducted on the culinary-medicinal mushroom Pleurotus nebrodensis is presented by placing emphasis on the clarification of the taxonomic identity of P. nebrodensis and other related taxa possessing entirely white to cream basidiomes, which grow in association with different plants of the family Apiaceae. Cultivation techniques, quality of the product sold and sales price, as well as nutritional and medicinal aspects are discussed. Taking also into consideration the high economic importance of P. nebrodensis, it is essential to proceed with the verification of the commercial strains currently available in the international market under the name of "P. nebrodensis" since it is very probable that many (or most) of them do not represent the real P. nebrodensis. TO confirm this hypothesis, an in silico analysis was conducted on a large of number of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rRNA sequences deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information database under the name P. nebrodensis. Results demonstrated that all "P nebrodensis" material examined from China (plus several sequences of no reported origin) corresponded to P. eryngii subsp. tuoliensis, with only 2 exceptions, which were grouped within P. eryngii sensu stricto. The real P. nebrodensis biological material from Italy and Greece is certified and is available upon request by the authors at the University of Palermo and the Agricultural University of Athens.

Notes on a New Productive Strain of King Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus eryngii (Higher Basidiomycetes), a Prized Italian Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom.

In this paper, the authors provide data on a culinary-medicinal, host-specific variety of P. eryngii species-complex that is known in Italy as "cardoncello". A species description, the techniques of isolation of a new strain (C-142-c), and the preparation of the substratum are illustrated. Data on the productivity of substratum inoculated with C-142-c strain and the nutritional value of cultivated "cardoncello" mushrooms are also provided.

Plant genetic resources and traditional knowledge on medicinal use of wild shrub and herbaceous plant species in the Etna Regional Park (Eastern Sicily, Italy).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper illustrates the results of a study carried out in the Etna Regional Park (Eastern Sicily, Italy) concerning the traditional knowledge on medicinal use of wild plant species. It contains the results of a quantitative analysis carried out for the first time. A total of 71 wild species are used for medicinal purposes. Two species, Astracantha sicula (Biv.) Greuter and Trifolium phleoides Willd., are little known as medicinal in the Mediterranean area. The main aim of the study was to understand to what extent current knowledge on the medicinal use of plants is still an element of the culture within the elderly population of the Etna Regional Park. A further aim was to identify species not previously reported as medicinal in the Mediterranean area with a potential agricultural interest. METHODOLOGY: The information was obtained using a semi-structured interview format performed on a sample of 196 people over the age of 60 who were considered experts in rural traditions. The plant uses were compared with other medical-ethnobotanical studies carried out in other areas of Sicily, Italy and various other Mediterranean countries. A number of quantitative indices were also used in order to verify the incidence of the species cited in the study within the culture and traditional medicine. RESULTS: Local communities currently use a total number of 71 wild species (34 families) as remedies for medicinal purposes. Most of the species were used as treatments against metabolic disorders and for general health. The leaves and the aerial parts of plants are the most-used parts of the plant and the most common preparation methods are decoction and direct application of plant parts. Astracantha sicula and Trifolium phleoides have never been documented as a species with medicinal properties in the Mediterranean literature. CONCLUSIONS: Only very few medicinal uses are widely known by all the informants and, on many occasions, a specific medicinal use is cited by only very few people. The quantitative analysis shows that the level of traditional knowledge on medicinal use of plants in the study area is poor, highlighting a considerably advanced state of cultural erosion.

In vitro antitumor effects of the cold-water extracts of Mediterranean species of genus Pleurotus (higher Basidiomycetes) on human colon cancer cells.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the cold-water extracts of Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae (CWE-Pef) and Pleurotus nebrodensis (CWE-Pn), 2 of the most prized wild and cultivated edible mushrooms, can affect the tumor phenotype of human colon cancer HCT116 cells. Our results showed that treatment with CWE-Pef and CWE-Pn resulted in a significant inhibition of the viability of HCT116 cells and promoted apoptosis, as also demonstrated by the increase of Bax-to-Bcl-2 messenger RNA ratio. Moreover, we observed that both extracts were able to inhibit cell migration and to affect homotypic and heterotypic cell-cell adhesion. It also was found that treatment with CWE-Pef and CWE-Pn negatively modulated the phosphorylation of the protein tyrosine as well as the phosphorylation levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2. In conclusion, the in vitro antitumor effects of CWE-Pef and CWE-Pn indicate that they can be considered as possible sources for new alternative therapeutic agents for cancer treatment.

Antibacterial activity of Mediterranean Oyster mushrooms, species of genus Pleurotus (higher Basidiomycetes).

Extracts of the Mediterranean culinary-medicinal Oyster mushrooms Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii, P. eryngii var. ferulae, P. eryngii var. elaeoselini, and P. nebrodensis were tested for their in vitro growth inhibitory activity against a group of bacterial reference strains of medical relevance: Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, S. epidermidis RP62A, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442, and Escherichia coli ATCC10536. All of the Pleurotus species analyzed inhibited the tested microorganisms in varying degrees. The data included in this paper for P. nebrodensis and P. eryngii var. elaeoselinii are new reports.