Taurine can Decrease Phosphorylated Tau Protein Levels in Alzheimer's Model Rats' Brains.

Background Microtubule formation is a dynamic process and Tau proteins promote the assembly of tubulin monomers into microtubules. Hyperphosphorylation of some amino acids in tau proteins causes neuron starvation and finally cell death. Taurine is found in the brain and has neuroprotective effects. Objective Since the protective and therapeutic effects of Taurine on phosphorylated tau proteins level in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex of rats induced by scopolamine have not been studied, we examined these effects. Method Adult male Wistar rats were randomly distributed into nine groups. For two weeks, Taurine-treated rats received different doses of Taurine (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg/ day) before or after scopolamine injection. The phosphorylated tau protein level in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique. Result Pretreatment with three doses of Taurine significantly decreased the phosphorylated tau protein level that increased by scopolamine in the prefrontal cortex (p < 0.001), as well as the cerebellum (p < 0.001). Moreover, high-dose administration of Taurine (100 mg/kg/day) after scopolamine injection significantly decreased phosphorylated tau protein level in the cerebellum (p < 0.01), as well as the prefrontal cortex (p < 0.05). However, there was not any significant change in the level of phosphorylated tau protein after Taurine treatment (25 and 50 mg/kg/day) in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Conclusion It can be concluded that Taurine could attenuate the increase in phosphorylated tau protein induced by scopolamine in the brain of rats and usage of Taurine as a pretreatment complement could be more useful in the protection of neurons.

Effect of Gingko biloba extract on scopolamine-induced apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats.

Apoptosis, known as programmed cell death, plays a crucial role in normal development and tissue homeostasis. Apoptosis is also involved in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Amnesia refers to the loss of memory and can also be a warning sign of neurodegenerative diseases. The antioxidant properties of Ginkgo biloba extract was known previously. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of Ginkgo biloba extract on the rat's hippocampal apoptotic neurons number after Scopolamine based amnesia. Thirty-six adult male Wistar rats were used. Rats were randomly divided into control, sham, protective and treatment groups. The rats in the sham group received only scopolamine hydrobromide (3 mg/kg) intraperitoneally. The rats in the protective and treatment groups received Ginkgo biloba extract (40, 80 mg/kg) for 7 days intraperitoneally before/after scopolamine injection. Then 48 h after the last injection, the brains of rats were withdrawn and fixed with paraformaldehyde, and then, after histological processing, the slices were stained with the TUNEL kit for apoptotic neurons. Data were compared by the ANOVA Post Hoc Tukey test; P < 0.05 was considered significant. Our results showed that Scopolamine (in the sham group) increased significantly the number of apoptotic neurons in all areas of the hippocampus compared with the control. Whereas, Ginkgo biloba extract reduce the neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus before and/or after encounter with scopolamine. We concluded that pretreatment and treatment injection of Ginkgo biloba extract can have a protective effect for neurons and it can limit apoptosis in all area of the hippocampus.

The effect of Urtica dioica extract on the number of astrocytes in the dentate gyrus of diabetic rats.

Diabetes mellitus is associated with cerebral alterations in both human and animal models of the disease. These alterations include abnormal expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides and hippocampal astrogliosis. Urtica dioica (Nettle) is among several species listed for their use against diabetes in folk medicine. The aim of this study was the evaluation of the astrocyte number in the dentate gyrus of diabetic rats after treatment with nettle. A total of 21 male albino Wistar rats were used in the present study. The animals were divided into three groups: control, nettle-untreated diabetic, and nettle treated diabetic. Hyperglycaemia was induced by streptozotocin (80 mg/kg) in the animals of the diabetic and treatment groups. One week after injection of the streptozotocin, the animals in the treatment group received a hydroalcoholic extract of Urtica dioica (100 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks intraperitoneally. After a 5-week survival period, all the rats were sacrificed and coronal sections were taken from the dorsal hippocampal formation of the right cerebral hemispheres. The area densities of the astrocytes were measured and compared between the three groups (p < 0.05). The number of astrocytes increased in the diabetic rats (24.06 +/- 9.57) compared with the controls (17.52 +/- 6.66). The densities in the treated rats (19.50 +/- 6.16) were lower than in the diabetic rats. Furthermore, the control and treated rats showed similar densities. We concluded that U. dioica extract helped compensate for astrocytes in the treatment rats dentate gyrus in comparison with diabetic rats.

The granule cell density of the dentate gyrus following administration of Urtica dioica extract to young diabetic rats.

Urtica dioica L. Stinging nettle has long been known worldwide as a medicinal plant. To study the benefits of the nettle in diabetic encephalopathy, the granule cell density of the dentate gyrus of diabetic rats was studied following administration of Urtica dioica extract. A total of 24 male albino Wistar rats were allocated equally to normal, diabetic, preventive and treatment groups. Hyperglycaemia was induced by streptozotocin (80 mg/kg) in the animals of the diabetic and treatment groups. One week after injection of the streptozotocin the animals in the treatment group received a hydroalcoholic extract of Urtica dioica (100 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks intraperitoneally. The rats of the preventive group received hydroalcoholic extract of U. dioica (100 mg/kg/day) IP for the first 5 days and an injection of streptozotocin (80 mg/kg) on the 6th day. After 5 weeks of study all the rats were sacrificed and coronal sections were taken from the dorsal hippocampal formation of the right cerebral hemispheres and stained with cresyl violet. The area densities of the granule cells were measured and compared in the four groups. The density was lower in the diabetic rats compared with the controls (p > 0.05). The preventive group showed lower cell density than the controls (p > 0.05). The densities in the treated rats were higher than in the diabetic rats (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the control and treated rats showed similar densities (p > 0.05). It seems that U. dioica extract can help compensate for granule cell loss in the diabetic rat dentate gyrus, which can ameliorate cognitive impairment in diabetes. However, preventive use of the extract showed no significant benefit.

Attention and cognition in bradykinetic-rigid syndromes: an event-related potential study.

Bradykinetic-rigid syndromes are often accompanied by cognitive impairment. Because prominent motor involvement in these disorders may interfere with neuropsychological testing, we used event-related potentials (ERPs) for the assessment of cognition and attention in 41 patients with various bradykinetic-rigid syndromes of less than 5 years duration: idiopathic Parkinson's disease corticobasal degeneration, Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome (SRO), and multiple system atrophy. Patients were compared with matched normals. ERP abnormalities in the auditory "oddball" paradigm were found only in corticobasal degeneration and SRO. ERP abnormalities in selective attention tasks were present in all patient groups, changes in SRO being the most prevalent. Abnormalities in corticobasal degeneration were present under "less-attention-demanding" conditions and suggested involvement of posterior parts of the brain. Multiple system atrophy and idiopathic Parkinson's disease patient groups had minimal ERP abnormalities. However, reaction times in MSA were longer in all paradigms. The results of the study support the view that bradykinetic-rigid syndromes involve some attentional deficits, but also have distinct reaction time and ERP characteristics, which may be helpful in differential diagnosis.

Stereotactic lesional surgery for the treatment of tremor in multiple sclerosis: a prospective case-controlled study.

The effect of stereotactic lesional surgery for the treatment of tremor in multiple sclerosis was examined in a prospective case-controlled study. Surgery was not undertaken in 33 patients (72% of 46 cases referred for stereotactic surgery), two of whom died within 4 months of referral. Twenty-four multiple sclerosis patients were included in the study; 13 underwent surgery and were matched against 11 controls on the basis of age, sex, expanded disability system scores (EDSS) and disease duration. Assessments were carried out at baseline/preoperatively, and then 3 and 12 months later; these included accelerometric and clinical ratings of tremor, spirography, handwriting, a finger-tapping test, nine-hole peg test, tremor-related disability, general neurological examination, Barthel Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Index of general disability, EDSS, a 0-4 ataxia scale, Mini-Mental State (MMS) examination, speech and swallowing assessments and grip strength. Postoperative MRI scans demonstrated that tremor could be attenuated by lesions centred on the thalamus in seven cases, on the zona incerta in five cases and in the subthalamic nucleus in one case. Two patients developed hemiparesis and in two cases epilepsy recurred. Two surgical patients and one control patient died between the 3 and 6 months assessments. Both groups had a significant deterioration in EDSS but not Barthel ADL Index scores at 1 year, but the difference between the groups was not significant. Similarly, no differences between the groups' rates of deterioration of speech or swallowing or MMS were found. Significant improvements in contralateral upper limb postural (P2) and kinetic tremors, spiral scores and head tremor were detected at 3 and 12 months after surgery (but not handwriting or nine-hole peg test performance). Tremor-related disability and finger-tapping speed were also significantly better 12 months after surgery, the latter having significantly worsened for the control group. A 3 Hz 'filter' for postural (P2) upper limb tremor was detected by accelerometry/spectral analysis above which tremor was always abolished and at or below which some residual tremor invariably remained. Criteria for selecting multiple sclerosis patients for this form of surgery are discussed.

Factors that ameliorate or aggravate spasmodic torticollis.

A sample of 72 patients with adult onset torticollis were asked to complete a checklist to indicate how a list of situations and activities affected the severity of their torticollis. Stress and self consciousness were reported as aggravating factors by more than 80% of the sample, whereas walking, fatigue, and carrying objects were noted as exacerbators by over 70% of the patients. For more than 40% of the sample, torticollis improved in the supine position, by relaxation, sleep, and lying on the side. However, the last four factors also worsened the head deviation in 16% to 25% of the patients. Use of a "geste antagoniste" to maintain the head in the body midline, was reported by 64 (88.9%) of the patients, which was still effective in correcting head position in 47%. The sensitivity of torticollis to social and emotional factors can be best explained in terms of a possible link between extrapyramidal and affective disorders through overlapping changes in catecholamine metabolism. The worsening of torticollis with peripheral motor activity (walking, running, writing) or its improvement with changes in body posture or with the geste antagoniste is best viewed in terms of alterations of peripheral proprioceptive feedback or central corollary discharge provoked by the motor output or command.

Performance of repetitive wrist movements in Parkinson's disease.

The timing of repetitive alternating 80 degrees flexion-extension movements of the right wrist was studied in 42 patients with Parkinson's disease, tested while not receiving dompaminergic medication and 20 age- and sex-matched controls. Five rates of movement (0.5 Hz, 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz, 2 Hz, 2.5 Hz) were examined. The interval between two successive flexion movements, as measured from the electromyography (EMG) records was taken as the unit of analysis or inter-response interval (IRI). At 0.5 Hz, 1 Hz and 1.5 Hz there were no differences between groups in mean IRIs. At higher rates of movement (2 Hz and 2.5 Hz), however, the controls were significantly more accurate in timing of repetitive movements than the patients. At all five frequencies, the patients with moderate or severe Parkinson's disease were less accurate in timing of repetitive movements than those with mild disease, although the differences were not significant. In nine patients tested in the 'on' and 'off' medication states, administration of 250 mg of levodopa/carbidopa resulted in significantly more accurate timing of repetitive movements. Wing and Kristofferson's (1973b) two-process model of repetitive movements was applied to the IRI data. At various rates of movement, the primary prediction of the model that lag 1 autocorrelations should be in the 0 to -0.5 range was violated in 40-70% of the patient and controls. For those subjects who had lag 1 autocorrelations in the expected range, IRI variability was to break down into a timekeeper and a motor delay variance. At all frequencies, the patients had significantly higher variance for IRI, timekeeper and motor delay than the controls. Although not significant, more severe Parkinson's disease was associated with greater IRI, timekeeper and motor delay variance, while administration of levodopa resulted in reduction of the three types of variance. The validity of the Wing and Kristofferson model for the analysis of this type of movement is discussed.

EMG biofeedback treatment of torticollis: a controlled outcome study.

Successful treatment of torticollis with electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback has been reported in a number of single case and single group studies. The present investigation represents the first controlled outcome study. Twelve torticollis patients were randomly assigned to EMG biofeedback or relaxation training and graded neck exercises (RGP). The procedure involved three sessions of baseline assessment, 15 sessions of EMG BF or RGP, 6 sessions of EMG BF or RGP plus home-management, 6 sessions of home-management alone, and follow-up 3 months after the end of treatment. A variety of outcome measures were used including physiological (EMG from the two sternocleidomastoid muscles, skin conductance level), behavioral (angle of head deviation, range of movement of the head), and self-report (depression, functional disability, body concept), therapist and "significant other" reports and independent observer assessment of videos. In both groups, neck muscle activity was reduced from pre- to posttreatment. This reduction was greater in the EMG biofeedback group. There was evidence of feedback-specific neck muscle relaxation in the EMG biofeedback group. Therefore, the outcome was not due to nonspecific factors and could be attributed to feedback-specific effects. Changes in skin conductance level showed that neck muscle relaxation was not simply mediated by a general reduction of "arousal." Significant improvements of extent of head deviation, and range of movement of the head, as well as reductions of depression were present, which were not different in the two groups. At the end of treatment, no patient was asymptomatic. Any therapeutic benefit was generally maintained at follow-up. The results and the procedural simplicity of RGP make the issue of cost-efficacy of EMG biofeedback a pertinent one. Further controlled outcome studies of EMG biofeedback treatment of torticollis with larger samples are required.