Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal research into medicinal plants in the Mt Stara Planina region (south-eastern Serbia, Western Balkans).

BACKGROUND: Ethnobotanical research in Southeast Europe-one of the most important European hotspots for biocultural diversity-is significant for the acquisition of Traditional Ecological Knowledge related to plants as well as for encouraging the development of local environments. The current ethnobotanical research was conducted in the region of Mt Stara Planina (south-eastern Serbia), which is characterised by rich phytodiversity with a large number of endemic and relict plant species. The aim of the study was to document the diversity of uses of medicinal plants and of traditional knowledge on their therapeutic uses. METHODS: Ethnobotanical data was collected through both open and semi-structured interviews with locals. Fifty-one inhabitants were interviewed (26 men and 25 women), aged 30-91, and data was analysed by means of use reports, citation frequency, use values (UV), and the informant consensus factor (ICF). RESULTS: The study identified 136 vascular medicinal plant taxa and one lichen species belonging to 53 families and 116 genera. Lamiaceae (19), Rosaceae (18), and Asteraceae (17) had the highest species diversity. The plant parts most commonly used to make a variety of herbal preparations were the aerial parts (54 citations), leaves (35 citations), fruits (20 citations), flowers (18 citations), and roots (16 citations), while the most common forms of preparation were teas (60.78%), consumption of fresh tubers, leaves, roots, and fructus (6.86%), compresses (5.88%), juices (5.39%), decoctions (3.92%), 'travarica' brandy (3.92%), and syrups (2.45%). Of the recorded species, 102 were administered orally, 17 topically, and 18 both orally and topically. The plants with a maximum use value (UV = 1) were Allium sativum, Allium ursinum, Gentiana asclepiadea, Gentiana cruciata, Gentiana lutea, Hypericum perforatum, Thymus serpyllum and Urtica dioica. The highest ICF value (ICF = 0.95) was recorded in the categories of Skin and Blood, Blood Forming Organs, and Immune Mechanism. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that medicinal plants in the research area are an extremely important natural resource for the local population as they are an important component of their health culture and provide a better standard of living.

Hieracium waldsteinii (Asteraceae) and Onosma stellulata (Boraginaceae) as a Source of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Agents.

The current study aimed to phytochemically characterize (including a detailed phenolic profile) two endemic Balkan's species (Hieracium waldsteinii and Onosma stellulata) and determine their possible application as a source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents. The main phenolic compound in both species (in all examined parts) was chlorogenic acid. Eriodictyol, genistein and naringenin were quantified only in H. waldsteinii while isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside and sinapic acid were characteristic for O. stellulata. The highest antioxidant activity (98 mg AAE/g dry weight for TAC assay) was ascribed to the flower extract of H. waldsteinii while the lowest results (∼4.3 mg AAE/g dry weight for FRP assay) were exhibited by the extracts obtained from the plant's stem. Antimicrobial assays showed moderate antibacterial, i. e., moderate/strong activity against several tested fungi (in particular Trichoderma viride). Correlation analysis revealed strong positive connection between phenolic compounds and reducing power of extracts as well as between total phenolic and flavonoid content and the obtained minimal inhibitory concentration recorded in antibacterial assays.

Traditional wound-healing plants used in the Balkan region (Southeast Europe).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The geographical and ecological specificity of the Balkan Peninsula has resulted in the development of a distinct diversity of medicinal plants. In the traditional culture of the Balkan peoples, plants have medicinal, economic and anthropological/cultural importance, which is reflected in the sound knowledge of their diversity and use. This study analyses the traditional use of medicinal plants in the treatment of wounds and the pharmacological characteristics of the most frequently used species. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A detailed analysis of the literature related to ethnobhe uses of medicinal plants in the Balkan region was carried out. Twenty-five studies were analysed and those plants used for the treatment of wounds were singled out. RESULT: An ethnobotanical analysis showed that 128 plant species (105 wild, 22 cultivated and 1 wild/cultivated) are used in the treatment of wounds. Their application is external, in the form of infusions, decoctions, tinctures, syrups, oils, ointments, and balms, or direct to the skin. Among those plants recorded, the most commonly used are Plantago major, Hypericum perforatum, Plantago lanceolata, Achillea millefolium, Calendula officinalis, Sambucus nigra, Tussilago farfara and Prunus domestica. The study showed that the traditional use of plants in wound healing is confirmed by in vitro and/or in vivo studies for P. major and P. lanceolata (3 laboratory studies for P. major and 2 for P. lanceolata), H. perforatum (5 laboratory studies and 3 clinical trials), A. millefolium (3 laboratory studies and one clinical trial), C. officinalis (6 laboratory studies and 1 clinical trial), S. nigra (3 laboratory studies) and T. farfara (one laboratory study). CONCLUSION: The beneficial effects of using medicinal plants from the Balkan region to heal wounds according to traditional practices have been proven in many scientific studies. However, information on the quantitative benefits to human health of using herbal medicines to heal wounds is still scarce or fragmented, hindering a proper evaluation. Therefore, further studies should be aimed at isolating and identifying specific active substances from plant extracts, which could also reveal compounds with more valuable therapeutic properties. Furthermore, additional reliable clinical trials are needed to confirm those experiences encountered when using traditional medicines. A combination of traditional and modern knowledge could result in new wound-healing drugs with a significant reduction in unwanted side effects.

An ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used plants on Suva planina mountain (south-eastern Serbia).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This study documents the ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal importance of plants in the Suva planina mountain region (south-eastern Serbia). It is reflected in their high diversity and their wide range of uses in the treatment of the local population. The aim of this study was a comparative analysis of data collected in the Suva planina region with relevant data from the Western Balkans, which included identifying the 'most popular' plants, as well as those species which are used specifically for treatment solely in the research area. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical research was carried out between 2012 and 2014 and data was collected through both open and semi-structured interviews with locals. A total of 66 people were interviewed (37 women and 29 men), aged between 49 and 90 (with a mean age of 71). RESULTS: This study identified 128 plants and 2 fungi which are used in ethnomedicine, 5 plant species used in ethnoveterinary medicine, and 16 plants used for 'other' purposes. Lamiaceae (20), Asteraceae (17), Rosaceae (16), Brassicaceae (5), Alliaceae (4) and Apiaceae (4) have the greatest diversity of species. Results showed that Achillea mellefolium, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Arctostaphyllos uva-ursi, Gentiana lutea, Hypericum perforatum, Juglans regia, Matricaria chamomilla, Mentha piperita, Plantago lanceolata, Plantago major, Salvia officinalis, Sempervivum tectorum, Tilia cordata and Thymus sepyllum are the 'most popular' medicinal plants (UV=1). Those plants with the most phytotherapeutic uses are Gentiana cruciata (14), H. perforatum (11) and A. sativum (10), while the most common conditions treated with medicinal plants are respiratory (79), urogenital (53), gastrointestinal (51), skin (43) and those relating to the circulatory system (35). A comparative analysis of the data collected in the research area and that from other parts of the Western Balkans showed that there are great similarities within Serbia between Suva planina and the Zlatibor region (37.2%) and Kopaonik Mt. (32.3%), while further afield it is most similar to Bosnia and Herzegovina (40.9%) and Bulgaria (40.6%). Moreover, it was established that 14 plant species and 2 fungi are used only in the Suva planina region, which points to the specificity of the diversity and the sound knowledge of medicinal plants in this region. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm that medicinal plants are an invaluable resource of the research area and need to be protected as they contribute to an improvement in living standards and the survival of people threatened by unfavourable demographic trends. However, due to over-exploitation, some plants have become exceptionally rare and are under threat, leading to the need for their rational use and protection so as to ensure they are still around for future generations.

Review of Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Study of Thymus serpyllum L.

Thymus serpyllum L. (wild thyme) is a perennial shrub, native to areas of northern and central Europe. Its aerial parts are most frequently used in ethnomedicine (mainly for treating illnesses and problems related to the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems), although recently its essential oils are becoming more popular as an important plant-derived product. The composition of these oils is affected by geographic region, the development stage of the plant, the harvest season, habitat, and climatic conditions. Wild thyme essential oil has an ever-growing number of uses in contemporary medicine due to its pharmacological properties: antioxidative, antimicrobial, and anticancerogenic activities. The antioxidative and antimicrobial properties of the essential oil are related to the synergistic and cumulative effect of its components. In terms of antitumor and cytotoxic activity, further research into the effects of essential oil is necessary, aimed at improving its cytotoxic effects, on the basis of which appropriate medicines can be formulated. Due to its pharmacological properties, the essential oil of wild thyme, a plant used in traditional medicine, represents an important natural resource for the pharmaceutical industry. In addition, it can be a source of natural antioxidants, nutritional supplements, or components of functional foods in the food industry.

The melliferous potential of forest and meadow plant communities on Mount Tara (Serbia).

The apiflora of 34 forest and meadow plant communities in Tara National Park was studied with the aim of assessing their melliferous potential and their contribution to bee pasture during the vegetation period. The melliferous plants were analyzed individually from the aspect of their flowering phenology, abundance, and the intensity of nectar and pollen production, as well as the production of honeydew. The melliferous potential of each investigated plant community was theoretically assessed on the basis of the coenotic coefficient of melliferousness incorporating a phytocoenotic analysis, the coenotic coefficients of nectar and pollen production, and the percentage of melliferous species in relation to the total number of species that characterize the association. The highest percentage of the melliferous species was noted in the meadow association Petasitetum hybridi (70%) and the forest association Piceetum-Abietis serpentinicum (63.6%). The highest values of the coenotic coefficient of melliferousness were established for the forest association Querco-Carpinetum iliricum, and the meadow association Rhinantho-Cynosuretum cristati. Trees notable for their honeydew production in good quantities were Pinus nigra Arnold, Picea sp. Fagus sylvatica Linnaeus, Populus tremula Linnaeus, and Quercus cerris Linnaeus. Because, the vegetation in the study area is forest dominated, forest bee pasture including early flowering herbaceous and woody plants, is of the greatest significance for the honey bee, both in the early spring because of pollen and nectar production, and in the autumn as a source of honeydew.

Phytotherapy in medieval Serbian medicine according to the pharmacological manuscripts of the Chilandar Medical Codex (15-16th centuries).

The Chilandar Medical Codex is the most significant and best preserved medieval Serbian manuscript and collects together documents on European medical science from the 12th to 15th centuries. It represents the best-known and most complete example of a large collection of medical manuscripts from the Salerno-Montpellier school, written in the vernacular - something which does not exist among the majority of European nations. This paper presents the section of the Codex that deals with phytotherapy, which is contained within the pharmacological manuscripts. An analysis of their contents shows that out of a total of 167 recorded substances, 135 are of plant origin (81%), 13 animal origin (7.7%) and 19 inorganic (11.3%). The recorded plant species are categorised into 63 families, of which the most frequent are: Apiaceae (8.1%), Lamiaceae (8.1%), Asteraceae (5.9%), Rosaceae (5.9%) and Fabaceae (4.4%). All possible plant parts were used in treatments: the whole plant (6%), underground parts (13.7% - root, rhizome, bulb) and aerial parts (80.3% - stem, leaf, flower, buds, fruit, seeds). Of the plants quoted, the following are mentioned most frequently: Vitis sp. (120), Rosa canina (55), Olea europaea (45), Pistacia lentiscus (25), Saccharum officinarum (23), Artemisia absinthium (16) and Foeniculum vulgare (15). The contents of the pharmacological manuscripts of the Chilandar Medical Codex point to the sound contemporary knowledge of the diversity of plant species, their origins, habitat types, the levels of their healing powers, and when and how to gather them and prepare them, as well as the recommended dose for the treatment of specific illnesses. As these manuscripts contain not only common, lay terms for the plants, but also scientific, botanical ones, we can consider them the precursor to Serbian botany. Based on its contents and the way in which they are presented, it can be viewed not only as the first Serbian pharmacopeia, but first Slavic pharmacopeia, too, because similar manuscripts written in the vernacular did not exist during that period among the other Slavic nations, or even most European nations.

An ethnobotanical study on the usage of wild medicinal herbs from Kopaonik Mountain (Central Serbia).

An ethnobotanical survey was carried out on the territory of the highest mountain in Central Serbia, Kopaonik, which is characterized by great plant diversity. In total, 83 wild species from 41 families and 96 preparations for use in human therapy were recorded. Among those wild plants which are most commonly used for medicinal purposes, Hypericum perforatum L., Urtica dioica L., Achillea millefolium L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Sambucus nigra L., and Thymus serpyllum L. were particularly highly recommended by the majority of informants as being 'beneficial for all ailments'. The most frequently reported medicinal uses were for treating gastrointestinal ailments (50%), skin injuries and problems (25.6%), followed by respiratory, urinary-genital and cardiovascular problems (20.5%, 20.5%, 19.2%, respectively). Plants with unusual phytotherapeutic uses are Galium verum L. (sedative properties) and Eupatorium cannabinum L. (influenza-like illnesses), while plants with interesting but lesser-known properties include Daphne laureola L. (rheumatism and skin ailments) and Ficaria verna Huds. (tubers for treating haemorrhoids). In addition, 10 wild species used in veterinary medicine, as well as 25 herbs used for human nourishment were noted.