Health and nutrition of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States.

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are opportunistic carnivores that feed primarily on benthic invertebrates and fish. Sea turtle rehabilitation requires provision of a species-specific, balanced diet that supplies nutrition similar to that of a wild diet; this can be challenging because free-ranging loggerheads' diets vary depending on their life stage and geographic location, with predominant prey species dictated by local availability. The goal of this study was to better understand the nutritional needs of subadult and adult loggerheads in rehabilitation. This was accomplished by conducting a retrospective survey of stomach contents identified during gross necropsy of 153 deceased loggerheads that stranded in coastal Georgia, USA. A total of 288 different forage items were identified; the most frequently observed prey items belong to the subphylum Crustacea (N = 131), followed by bony fish (Osteichthyes; N = 45), gastropod mollusks (N = 40), bivalve mollusks (N = 23), and Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus; N = 15). The proportions of certain prey items differed significantly with turtle size; adult turtles ate proportionately more gastropods (p = 0.001), and subadults ate proportionately more fish (p = 0.01). Stomach contents information was used to determine common local prey items (blue crab, cannonball jellyfish, horseshoe crab, whelk), which were evaluated for nutritional content. Additionally, we compared hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles (including proteins, trace minerals, and vitamins) between four cohorts of loggerhead turtles, including free-ranging subadults and adults, nesting females, and loggerheads undergoing rehabilitation. This information was applied to inform a regionally specific, formulated diet for tube feeding, and a supplement containing vitamins and minerals for captive loggerheads, to more closely approximate the nutritional content of their natural diet. Assessing the regional and temporal variability in loggerhead diets is an important component in their effective conservation because resultant data can be used to help understand the impacts of environmental perturbations on benthic food webs.

Differences in isolation rate and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from foals with sepsis at admission and after ≥48 hours of hospitalization.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial treatment protocols for foals with sepsis that do not improve clinically often are adjusted based on bacteriological and antimicrobial susceptibility testing results from samples collected at hospital admission. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether hospitalization for ≥48 hours affects bacteriological and antimicrobial susceptibility testing results. ANIMALS: Two-hundred sixty-seven foals <30 days of age admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit and diagnosed with sepsis. METHODS: Medical records were reviewed retrospectively to identify foals with sepsis and positive bacteriological cultures. Results from samples collected at hospital admission were compared to those collected ≥48 hours after admission. Logistic regression for clustered data and exact logistic regression were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Three-hundred fifty-three unique bacterial isolates were obtained from 231 foals at hospital admission and 92 unique bacterial isolates were obtained from 57 foals after ≥48 hours of hospitalization. Relative isolation frequency after ≥48 hours of hospitalization increased for Acinetobacter spp., 0.6% versus 3.3% (odds ratio [OR], 7.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.28-45.45); Enterococcus spp., 4.8% versus 19.6% (OR, 5.37; 95% CI, 2.64-10.90); Klebsiella spp., 5.1% versus 10.9% (OR, 2.27; 95% CI, 1.05-4.89); Pseudomonas spp., 3.0% versus 7.6% (OR, 3.49; 95% CI, 3.49-240.50); and Serratia spp., 3.0% versus 5.4% (OR, 20.23; 95% CI, 2.20-186.14). Bacteria isolated after ≥48 hours of hospitalization were less susceptible to all tested antimicrobial drugs, except for imipenem. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Decreased antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated after ≥48 hours of hospitalization provides a rationale for repeated bacteriological culture and susceptibility testing in hospitalized foals with sepsis.

Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of and risk factors for ophthalmic disease in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) at a veterinary teaching hospital: 52 cases (1985-2013).

OBJECTIVE To describe diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of and risk factors for ophthalmic disease in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) evaluated at a veterinary teaching hospital. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 112 of 144 (78%) leopard geckos that were evaluated at a veterinary teaching hospital in January 1985 through October 2013 and for which sufficient medical record information was available. PROCEDURES Information from medical records was used to identify leopard geckos with ophthalmic disease, characterize cases, and determine risk factors for the presence of ophthalmic disease. RESULTS Of the 112 leopard geckos, 52 (46%) had ophthalmic disease (mainly corneal or conjunctival disease). Female geckos were less likely to have ophthalmic disease, and there was a positive association between increasing age and ophthalmic disease. Use of a paper towel substrate, absence of any heat source, and lack of vitamin A supplementation were positively associated with a diagnosis of ophthalmic disease. Head dysecdysis was the only concurrent disorder significantly associated with ophthalmic disease. At necropsy, 5 affected leopard geckos had squamous metaplasia of the conjunctivae. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that ophthalmic disease is a common finding in leopard geckos. The cause of ocular surface disease in leopard geckos may be multifactorial, and hypovitaminosis A may be an important risk factor. Although animals receiving supplemental vitamin A were less likely to have ophthalmic disease, further understanding is required regarding the metabolism of and nutritional requirements for vitamin A in leopard geckos.

Comparison of peribulbar and retrobulbar regional anesthesia with bupivacaine in cats.

OBJECTIVE: To compare effectiveness and complications associated with peribulbar and retrobulbar anesthesia with bupivacaine in cats. ANIMALS: 6 healthy adult cats. PROCEDURES: Cats were sedated with dexmedetomidine and received a peribulbar injection of 0.5% bupivacaine (1.5 mL), iopamidol (0.5 mL), and saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (1 mL) or retrobulbar injection of 0.5% bupivacaine (0.75 mL) and iopamidol (0.25 mL) in a crossover study with ≥ 2 weeks between treatments. The contralateral eye was the control. Injectate distribution was evaluated with CT. After atipamezole administration, periocular and corneal sensations, intraocular pressure (IOP), and ocular reflexes and appearance were evaluated for 24 hours. RESULTS: All peribulbar and 3 of 6 retrobulbar injections resulted in CT evidence of intraconal injectate. Corneal sensation and periocular skin sensation were absent or significantly reduced relative to that for control eyes for 3 hours after peribulbar injection. Mean ± SD IOP immediately after injection was significantly higher for eyes with peribulbar injections (33 ± 12 mm Hg) than for control eyes or eyes with retrobulbar injections (both 14 ± 4 mm Hg) but 10 minutes later decreased to 18 ± 3 mm Hg. Exophthalmos, chemosis, and ptosis were evident in most injected eyes, and irritation was evident in 3 of 6 peribulbar-injected and 1 of 6 retrobulbar-injected eyes. All conditions resolved within 14 hours. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Peribulbar injection resulted in intraconal deposition of bupivicaine in a higher percentage of cats than did retrobulbar injection and induced notable anesthesia relative to that for the control eye; however, IOP increased temporarily.

Evaluation of a commercial bovine colostrum replacer for achieving passive transfer of immunity in springbok calves (Antidorcas marsupialis).

Failure of passive transfer (FPT) occurs in ruminant species when there is inadequate absorption of immunoglobulins from the colostrum. In zoologic establishments, FPT can be a common occurrence in hand-raised ruminant neonates fed insufficient amounts of colostrum replacer (CR) and/or poor-quality CR. The goals of this study were to investigate the efficacy of a commercial bovine CR at achieving adequate passive transfer of immunity and evaluate tests to assess FPT in nondomestic ruminant species. In the past several years, research in dairy calves has shown that passive transfer rates can be dramatically improved if the CR dose is doubled. The treatment group (n = 10) consisted of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) calves fed Land O'Lakes bovine commercial CR at a dose of > or = 4.68 g of immunoglobulin G (22 g of CR powder) per kilogram of animal's body weight divided into five feedings over 24 hr. The control group (n=7) consisted of calves that nursed from their dams. This study reported no significant difference between the proportion of calves with adequate passive transfer in the treatment (80%) and control (71%) groups (P= 1.00). Morbidity and mortality rates until weaning were 0% in both groups. The study also determined the sensitivity and specificity values (n = 37) for five serum tests (y-glutamyl-transferase [GGT], globulin, glutaraldehyde coagulation [GC], sodium sulfite turbidity test, and total protein) used to determine passive transfer status in springbok calves. This study recommends the following serum tests and cutoff ranges for determining FPT in springbok calves: globulin < or = 1.85 mg/dl, GGT < or = 228.5 IU/ L, and GC > or = 28 min.

Retrobulbar and peribulbar regional techniques in cats: a preliminary study in cadavers.

OBJECTIVE: To compare injectate distribution and potential complications of retrobulbar and peribulbar injections in cat cadavers. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized masked study. ANIMALS: Ten cat cadavers (20 eyes). METHODS: A dorsomedial retrobulbar injection (RB) of 1 mL of 0.5% bupivacaine and iopamidol (1:1) was performed in seven eyes. A dorsomedial peribulbar injection (PB-1) of 4 mL of the same injectate was performed in seven eyes, and two peribulbar injections (PB-2) of the same injectate, divided equally between the dorsomedial and ventrolateral regions (2 mL each) were performed in six eyes. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured before, immediately and 15 minutes after injection. Cadavers underwent computed tomography before and following injections. A radiologist scored injectate distribution within the intraconal space (none, moderate, or large) and around the optic nerve (degrees). An injection was defined as likely to provide adequate regional anesthesia if the volume of distribution of intraconal injectate was 'large' and it contacted over 270° of the optic nerve circumference. RESULTS: The success rate (95% confidence interval) of RB, PB-1, and PB-2 injections was 71% (29.0-96.3%), 86% (42.1-99.6%), and 67% (22.3-95.7%), respectively. With all three techniques, IOP increased significantly after injection, but returned to baseline by 15 minutes following RB injection. No intraocular, intravascular, intrathecal, or intraneural injectate was observed. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The single-peribulbar injection technique may be superior to retrobulbar or double-peribulbar injections, however, all techniques require further studies in live cats to determine safety and efficacy prior to clinical use.

Effects of corn oil administered orally on conspicuity of ultrasonographic small intestinal lesions in dogs with lymphangiectasia.

Lymphangiectasia is one of the causes of protein-losing enteropathy in dogs and characteristic ultrasonographic small intestinal lesions have been previously described. The purpose of this study was to determine whether corn oil administered orally (COAO) would result in increased conspicuity of these characteristic small intestinal ultrasonographic lesions in dogs with lymphangiectasia. Affected dogs were included if they underwent corn oil administered orally and had a surgical full-thickness intestinal biopsy diagnosis of lymphangiectasia. Control dogs had normal clinical examination and standard laboratory test findings. Ultrasound images of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were obtained prior to and 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after corn oil administered orally for all dogs. Parameters recorded for each ultrasound study were intestinal wall thickness, mucosal echogenicity, and presence or absence of hyperechoic mucosal striations (HMS) and a parallel hyperechoic mucosal line (PHML). Nine affected and five controls dogs were included in the study. Seven of the nine dogs with lymphangiectasia had hyperechoic mucosal striations prior to corn oil administered orally. Jejunal hyperechoic mucosal striations were significantly associated with lymphangiectasia at multiple time points (P < 0.05) and were best identified in dogs with lymphangiectasia 60 or 90 min after corn oil administered orally. Increased mucosal echogenicity was observed in all dogs at multiple time points after corn oil administered orally. A parallel hyperechoic mucosal line was present in the jejunum in 4/5 healthy and 6/9 dogs with lymphangiectasia at one or more time points after corn oil administered orally. Findings indicated that corn oil administered orally improves conspicuity of characteristic ultrasonographic lesions in dogs with lymphangiectasia, however some of these lesions may also be present in healthy dogs that recently received a fatty meal.

Oleander toxicosis in equids: 30 cases (1995-2010).

OBJECTIVE: To determine clinical, laboratory analysis, and necropsy findings for equids with oleander toxicosis and to identify factors associated with outcome. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: 30 equids. PROCEDURES: Medical records of equids with detectable concentrations of oleandrin in serum, plasma, urine, or gastrointestinal fluid samples and equids that had not received cardiac glycoside drugs but had detectable concentrations of digoxin in serum were identified via a medical records database search. Descriptive statistics were calculated for medical history, physical examination, laboratory analysis, and necropsy variables. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify physical examination and laboratory analysis factors significantly associated with outcome. RESULTS: 3 of 30 (10.0%) equids died before or immediately after arrival at the hospital. Of the other 27 equids, 23 (85.2%) had gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, azotemia was detected for 19 (70.4%), and a cardiac arrhythmia was ausculted for 18 (66.7%). Mortality rate for all equids was 50.0%; mortality rate for hospitalized equids was 44.4%. The most common cause of death was cardiac dysfunction. Odds of survival to discharge from the hospital were lower for equids with cardiac arrhythmias versus those without arrhythmias and decreased with increasing Hct and serum glucose concentrations. Odds of survival increased with increasing serum chloride concentration and duration of hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Equids with oleander toxicosis frequently had simultaneous gastrointestinal tract, cardiac, and renal problems. Oleander intoxication should be a differential diagnosis for equids with colic in geographic areas where oleander is found, especially when azotemia or cardiac arrhythmias are detected concurrently.

Effects of dietary lysine supplementation on upper respiratory and ocular disease and detection of infectious organisms in cats within an animal shelter.

OBJECTIVE: To determine within a cat shelter effects of dietary lysine supplementation on nasal and ocular disease and detection of nucleic acids of Chlamydophila felis, feline calicivirus (FCV), and feline herpesvirus (FHV-1). ANIMALS: 261 adult cats. PROCEDURES: Cats were fed a diet containing 1.7% (basal diet; control cats) or 5.7% (supplemented diet; treated cats) lysine for 4 weeks. Plasma concentrations of lysine and arginine were assessed at the beginning (baseline) and end of the study. Three times a week, cats were assigned a clinical score based on evidence of nasal and ocular disease. Conjunctival and oropharyngeal swab specimens were tested for FHV-1, FCV, and C felis nucleic acids once a week. RESULTS: Data were collected from 123, 74, 59, and 47 cats during study weeks 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. By study end, plasma lysine concentration in treated cats was greater than that in control cats and had increased from baseline. There was no difference between dietary groups in the proportion of cats developing mild disease. However, more treated cats than control cats developed moderate to severe disease during week 4. During week 2, FHV-1 DNA was detected more commonly in swab specimens from treated versus control cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Dietary lysine supplementation in the amount used in our study was not a successful means of controlling infectious upper respiratory disease within a cat shelter. Rather, it led to increases in disease severity and the incidence of detection of FHV-1 DNA in oropharyngeal or conjunctival mucosal swab specimens at certain time points.

Assessment of vitamin E concentrations in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of horses following oral administration of vitamin E.

OBJECTIVE: To determine concentrations of alpha-tocopherol in serum and CSF of healthy horses following administration of supplemental vitamin E in feed. ANIMALS: 10 healthy adult horses. PROCEDURES: Horses were allocated to receive supplemental d-alpha-tocopherol (1,000 U/d [group A; n=5] or 10,000 U/d [group B; 5]) in feed for 10 days. Blood samples were collected before (baseline), during, and at intervals for 10 days after discontinuation of vitamin E administration for assessment of serum alpha-tocopherol concentration. Cerebrospinal fluid samples were collected prior to and 24 hours after cessation of vitamin E administration. Alpha-tocopherol concentrations in serum and CSF samples were analyzed via high-performance liquid chromatography; changes in those values during the treatment period were compared between groups, and the relationship of serum and CSF alpha-tocopherol concentrations was evaluated. RESULTS: In both groups, serum alpha-tocopherol concentration increased significantly from baseline during vitamin E administration; values in group B were significantly greater than those in group A during and after treatment. At the end of vitamin E administration, CSF alpha-tocopherol concentration was not significantly greater than the baseline value in either group; however, the increase in CSF concentration was significant when the group data were combined and analyzed. Serum and CSF alpha-tocopherol concentrations were significantly correlated at baseline for all horses, but were not strongly correlated after 10 days of vitamin E administration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In healthy horses, daily oral administration of supplemental vitamin E in feed resulted in increases in serum and CSF alpha-tocopherol concentrations.

Effects of dietary lysine supplementation in cats with enzootic upper respiratory disease.

To determine the effectiveness of dietary lysine supplementation in cats with enzootic upper respiratory disease (URD), 50 cats were fed a ration containing 11 or 51 g lysine/kg diet for 52 days. Food intake, body weight, clinical signs, plasma amino acid concentrations and presence of Chlamydophila felis or feline herpesvirus (FHV)-1 DNA within the conjunctival fornix were assessed. Food and lysine intake of both dietary groups decreased between days 17 and 22, coinciding with peak disease and viral presence. Mean disease score for cats fed the supplemented ration (0.94) was higher than for those fed the basal diet (0.21); however, this could be attributed to a small subset of male cats which demonstrated fighting behavior that may have contributed to stress within that cage. FHV-1 DNA was detected on 12 occasions in six cats receiving the supplemented diet and on one occasion in one cat fed the basal diet. C felis DNA was never detected. Mean plasma arginine concentration was lower and plasma lysine concentration was higher in supplemented cats. Mean plasma arginine concentration declined throughout the study in both dietary groups. Data from the present study raise important questions but do not permit a definitive conclusion regarding the efficacy of dietary lysine supplementation in cats with enzootic URD.

Efficacy of oral supplementation with L-lysine in cats latently infected with feline herpesvirus.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of orally administered L-lysine on clinical signs of feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) infection and ocular shedding of FHV-1 in latently infected cats. ANIMALS: 14 young adult, FHV-1-naive cats. PROCEDURE: Five months after primary conjunctival inoculation with FHV-1, cats were rehoused and assigned to receive 400 mg of L-lysine in food once daily for 30 days or food only. On day 15, all cats received methylprednisolone to induce viral reactivation. Clinical signs of infection were graded, and viral shedding was assessed by a polymerase chain reaction assay throughout our study. Peak and trough plasma amino acid concentrations were assessed on day 30. RESULTS: Fewer cats and eyes were affected by conjunctivitis, and onset of clinical signs of infection was delayed on average by 7 days in cats receiving L-lysine, compared with cats in the control group; however, significant differences between groups were not demonstrated. Significantly fewer viral shedding episodes were identified in the treatment group cats, compared with the control group cats, after rehousing but not following corticosteroid-induced viral reactivation. Mean plasma L-lysine concentration was significantly increased at 3 hours but not at 24 hours after L-lysine administration. Plasma arginine concentration was not significantly altered. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Once daily oral administration of 400 mg of L-lysine to cats latently infected with FHV-1 was associated with reduced viral shedding following changes in housing and husbandry but not following corticosteroid administration. This dose caused a significant but short-term increase in plasma L-lysine concentration without altering plasma arginine concentration or inducing adverse clinical effects.