Thalassemia carrier status and groundwater iron: Implication for iron supplementation program for children in Bangladesh.

Background: Thalassemia, a congenital disorder of hemoglobin synthesis is characterized by low hemoglobin and high iron status, is prevalent in Bangladesh. Iron, consumed through drinking groundwater also increases the population iron status in Bangladesh. The study examined the effect of iron containing micronutrient powder (MNP) on the hemoglobin and ferritin status in Bangladeshi children with thalassemia and their non-thalassemia peers exposed to a high concentration of iron from drinking groundwater. Design and methods: Three hundred twenty-seven children aged 2-5 years were recruited for an MNP efficacy trial. A sub sample (n = 222) were screened for thalassemia. Hemoglobin and ferritin levels were measured in children with and without thalassemia. Intake of iron from the key sources-diet, groundwater and MNP was measured. Mann Whitney and t-test were employed to compare the groups. Results: Hemoglobin concentration of the children with thalassemia at the endpoint remained unchanged relative to the baseline; 11.56 ± 0.59 g/dL (Endpoint) versus 11.6 ± 0.54 g/dL (Baseline), p = 0.83. In children without thalassemia hemoglobin tended to increase; 12.54 ± 0.72 g/dL (Endpoint) versus 12.41 ± 0.72 g/dL (baseline), p = 0.06. Baseline reserve of body iron was significantly (p = 0.03) higher in thalassemia carriers (594 gm) compared to their non-carrier peers (558 gm). The increase of the infection-adjusted ferritin from baseline to the endpoint was 7.37% (p = 0.7) and 10.17% (p = 0.009) in the carrier and non-carrier groups respectively. Conclusions: In Bangladesh, the coexistence of thalassemia and the exposure to a high concentration of iron from drinking groundwater renders anemia prevention program with a low iron MNP potentially lesser hazardous to the thalassemia carriers.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Vitamin B12 Deficiency among Pregnant Women in Rural Bangladesh.

Vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with an increased risk of pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes. However, data on vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnant Bangladeshi women are limited. This study examines vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency in rural Bangladeshi women during early and late pregnancies. Some 522 women whose gestational age was <20 weeks were recruited. Serum vitamin B12 concentrations were measured at baseline and after 14 weeks of iron-folate supplementation. Logistic regression analysis examined the association of various socio-demographic, dietary, and pregnancy-related factors with vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency. Overall, 19% of the women during early pregnancy had vitamin B12 deficiency (serum vitamin B12 concentration < 203 pg/mL) and nearly 40% had marginal deficiency (serum vitamin B12 concentration 203 to <300 pg/mL). Vitamin B12 deficiency doubled to 38% during late pregnancy, while marginal deficiency slightly increased to 41.7%. The pregnant women with a gestational age of ≥27 weeks had a higher risk of developing vitamin B12 deficiency (OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.096−6.214) than those of a gestational age of <27 weeks. Vitamin B12 deficiency was significantly higher in pregnant women in rented accommodation (OR = 13.32; 95% CI = 1.55−114.25) than in those living in their own house. Vitamin B12 deficiency was significantly higher among women who consumed red or organ meat <3 times a week than in those who consumed it more often (OR = 2.327, 95% CI = 1.194−4.536). None of these factors were significantly associated with marginal vitamin B12 deficiency. In conclusion, vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal deficiency among pregnant rural Bangladeshi women increased as their pregnancies progressed. Increasing gestational age, living in a rented house, and the consumption of red or organ meat <3 times a week were identified as the independent risk factors of vitamin B12 deficiency in this population. Further research with more in-depth assessments of dietary vitamin B12 intakes is needed to develop an intervention program preventing vitamin B12 deficiency in this population.

Effect of routine iron-folic acid supplementation among rural pregnant women living in low- and high-groundwater-iron areas in Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the risks and benefits of routine Fe-folic acid (IFA) supplementation in pregnant women living in low- and high-groundwater-Fe areas in Bangladesh. DESIGN: A case-controlled prospective longitudinal study design was used to compare the effect of daily Fe (60 mg) and folic acid (400 µg) supplementation for 3·5 months. SETTING: A rural community in Bangladesh. PARTICIPANTS: Pregnant women living in low-groundwater-Fe areas (n 260) and high-groundwater-Fe areas (n 262). RESULTS: Mean Hb and serum ferritin concentrations at baseline were significantly higher in pregnant women in the high-groundwater-Fe areas. After supplementation, the mean change in Hb concentration in the women in the low-groundwater-Fe areas (0·10 g/dl) was higher than that in the pregnant women in the high-groundwater-Fe areas (-0·08 g/dl; P = 0·052). No significant changes in the prevalence of anaemia or Fe deficiency (ID) in either group were observed after IFA supplementation; however, the prevalence of Fe-deficiency anaemia (IDA) decreased significantly in the women in the low-groundwater-Fe areas. The risk of anaemia, ID and IDA after supplementation did not differ significantly between the groups. None of the participants had Fe overload. However, a significant proportion of the women in the high- and low-groundwater-Fe areas remained anaemic and Fe-deficient after supplementation. CONCLUSION: IFA supplementation significantly increased the Hb concentration in pregnant women living in the low-groundwater-Fe areas. Routine supplementation with 60 mg Fe and 400 µg folic acid does not pose any significant risk of haemoconcentration or Fe overload. Further research to identify other nutritional and non-nutritional contributors to anaemia is warranted to prevent and treat anaemia.

Efficacy of twice-weekly multiple micronutrient supplementation for improving the hemoglobin and micronutrient status of anemic adolescent schoolgirls in Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Although iron deficiency is a major cause of anemia, other micronutrient deficiencies may also play a role. OBJECTIVE: We examined whether multiple micronutrient supplementation is more efficacious than is supplementation with iron and folic acid alone for improving the hemoglobin and iron status of anemic adolescent girls in Bangladesh. DESIGN: Anemic (hemoglobin < 12.0 g/dL) girls (n = 197) aged 14-18 y from rural schools in Dhaka District were entered into a randomized double-blind trial and received twice-weekly supplements of iron and folic acid (IFA group) or multiple micronutrients (15 micronutrients, including iron and folic acid; MMN group) for 12 wk. RESULTS: At recruitment, the characteristics of the girls in the 2 groups were not significantly different, except for family size and body mass index. At the end of the study, although both groups benefited significantly from supplementation, mean changes in hemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations were not significantly different between groups. Compared with the IFA group, girls in the MMN group had significantly greater increases in mean serum vitamin A, plasma vitamin C, red blood cell folic acid, and riboflavin concentrations (assessed as erythrocyte glutathione reductase activation coefficient). After 12 wk of supplementation, only the prevalence of vitamins A and C and riboflavin deficiencies decreased more significantly in the MMN group than in the IFA group. CONCLUSIONS: Twice-weekly MMN supplementation for 12 wk significantly improved the status of the micronutrients assessed but was not more efficacious than was supplementation with iron and folic acid alone in improving the hematologic status of anemic adolescent girls. More frequent doses may be needed to achieve full benefit.