Characterizing the effect of sodium reduction and monosodium glutamate supplementation on white and multigrain breads.

Sodium overconsumption has become a serious health concern resulting in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) publishing voluntary sodium reduction guidelines for a wide spectrum of packaged and processed foods. Reducing sodium through the removal of salt may decrease the palatability of foods, thus increasing the need for new approaches to prevent such palatability loss. The objective of this research was to characterize white and multigrain breads with either 43% or 60% reduction in sodium and with and without monosodium glutamate (MSG) using descriptive analysis methodology as well as to identify the drivers of liking for white and multigrain breads of varying sodium contents with and without MSG. Significant differences were identified in the attributes of salty taste and aftertaste, savory aftertaste, and chewy and firm textures in white bread and of salty taste and aftertaste, sweet taste, and density in multigrain bread. By regressing consumer test data of these breads onto their principal component analysis biplots, textural attributes and salty taste and aftertaste were identified as primary drivers of liking in white and multigrain breads. Flavor enhancers such as MSG show promise in mitigating palatability loss that occurs when the sodium content of bread is greatly reduced and thus provide a promising solution to produce breads with an improved nutritional profile. Future research on flavor enhancement in other food matrices would be valuable as well as in other bread and carbohydrate-based food categories. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of our study suggest that texture and a salty taste and aftertaste drive consumer liking of reduced-sodium white and multigrain breads and liking of breads could be improved with the addition of monosodium glutamate. Increasing the acceptance of reduced-sodium food products could help to improve the health of the American population by resulting in a reduced risk of hypertension and subsequently heart attacks and stroke.

Characterization and categorization of commercial confectionary gels through napping-ultra flash profile (UFP) and hierarchical clustering analysis.

The use of high-solid gels (HSGs) in the confectionary and dietary supplement industries is rapidly expanding, increasing the interest in studying the relationships across their composition, sensory characteristics, thermal behavior, and texture. Thus, the objectives of this study were to characterize HSG product categories based on sensory characteristics and analytical parameters, and correlate analytical parameters with sensory descriptors generated through napping-ultra flash profile (napping-UFP). In one 90-min session, 15 panelists performed two napping-UFP exercises, categorizing and describing 13 confectionary HSGs by their overall degree of similarity and by their texture. Multiple factor analysis and hierarchical clustering were conducted on the napping-UFP data. The products were also characterized by their moisture content, water activity (aw ), thermal behavior, and texture profile. Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis were conducted on the analytical parameters; additionally, the analytical parameters were related to the sensory descriptors using Spearman's correlation. The panelists predominantly focused on texture to categorize the samples. The clustering of the samples across the napping-UFP exercises resulted in two categories-gelatin and nongelatin-containing products. Sensory descriptors generated by panelists during the napping-UFP were significantly correlated to the measured analytical parameters. The difference in texture between the two clusters, associated with the presence of a small (3 J/g) gelatin triple-helix structure as determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), was significant enough to be perceived by panelists. These findings indicate that modified starch and pectin, impart different sensory characteristics than gelatin and have important implications for developing new formulations for HSGs in which gelatin-like texture is desirable. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Increased consumer demands for nonanimal-derived ingredients have fueled the food and pharmaceutical industries interest in both finding an economical replacement material for gelatin and gaining a deeper understanding of gelatin's textural and thermal properties. The results of this research have important implications for finding suitable ingredients to replace gelatin in high-solid confectionary gels, as well as enhancing the quality of current gelatin-containing HSGs. The triple-helix is a powerful structural element that determined the textural properties perceived by panelists in HSGs. Consequently, the search for a replacement material for gelatin should focus on identifying materials that impart similar properties as the triple-helix structure, helping to create products with gelatin-like texture. Additionally, these findings begin to provide a better understanding of the thermal behavior of gelatin for enhancing the functionality, stability, and product integrity of HSG systems throughout shipping, storage, and consumption. Additional research is underway to explore in detail the thermal behavior of gelatin in commercial and model gummy systems.

Context effect of environmental setting and product information in acceptability testing of tea and cola: A study comparing sensory engagement in a traditional sensory booth and a study commons.

Sensory evaluation of food relies heavily on the eating context. The objective of this study was to determine how the context effect, created from differences in environmental setting and product information, affects consumer's acceptability of two types of beverages. Participants of this study rated five ready-to-drink tea products and five diet cola products on a 9-point hedonic scale. Environmental setting differences were created by altering testing locations, and product information differences were created by serving the same samples with or without product name and image. Self-reported sensory engagement was measured in each location. Tea samples showed significantly higher appearance liking ratings in the sensory booth location as well as higher flavor liking ratings when product information was provided. Cola samples did not show a significant effect of testing location but did show a significant product information by sample interaction, where well-established brands received higher ratings when product information was provided. Overall, results were product-specific; testing location does not appear to have a large influence on hedonic scores for certain beverages, and the impact of product information varies largely depending on the product type and brand. The laboratory sensory booth setting provided higher panelist engagement overall. Additional research on the combination of external context and meal, sample, or social context is needed to fully explore the effect of eating context in sensory tests. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Findings from this study can help the food industry comprehend how test location may impact results of acceptability testing of different beverage products, both in terms of hedonic scores and sensory engagement. Results of this study also evidence the influence of sample information on product acceptability and how this influence differs based on the type of beverage and the popularity of the brand tested.

Drivers of liking for reduced sodium potato chips and puffed rice.

Reducing the amount of sodium in food products is necessary in decreasing the prevalence of hypertension, heart attack, and stroke. There is a lack of information on sodium reduction in potato chips and puffed rice, which comprise a large percentage of salty snack sales, and the use of flavor enhancers to maintain consumer acceptability of these products. The objective of this study was to identify drivers of liking for potato chip and puffed rice samples seasoned with differing sodium and flavor enhancer concentrations using sensory descriptive analysis and acceptance data. Eleven trained panelists evaluated the snacks and found eight significantly different attributes for potato chips and seven significantly different attributes for puffed rice. To better understand how these differences in samples play a role in sample liking, the descriptive analysis data were correlated with the data from a consumer test through preference mapping. For potato chips, consumers liked samples characterized by meaty aftertaste, aroma, aroma-by-mouth, and umami aftertaste. Consumers disliked samples with a strong raw potato aroma. For puffed rice, consumers liked samples with attributes of crunchy texture, garlic aftertaste, and savory aftertaste and disliked bitter aftertaste and chili powder aroma-by-mouth. These findings imply acceptance of sodium-reduced potato chips and puffed rice is possible by focusing on these identified drivers of liking. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Our findings suggest the addition of flavor enhancers maintains or improves the palatability of reduced sodium products with eight attributes influencing liking of potato chips and seven attributes influencing liking of puffed rice. Understanding the sensory attributes that impact the acceptance of reduced sodium products will allow for these attributes to be the focus during product development, which may result in increased sales of reduced sodium snacks, thus decreasing sodium consumption from snack products.

Consumer Acceptance of Reduced Sodium Potato Chips and Puffed Rice: How Does Ingredient Information and Education Influence Liking?

Approximately 90% of Americans consume more than the 2,300 mg of sodium recommended daily; therefore, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recommended short- and long-term sodium reduction goals in food products. Reduced sodium products have not been previously liked, so flavor enhancers may increase their palatability. The objective of this research was to compare the acceptability of FDA-recommended short- and long-term sodium reduction goals for potato chips (18 and 51% reduction) and puffed rice (20 and 57% reduction) seasoned with and without monosodium glutamate (MSG) and disodium inosinate and guanylate (I + G) combinations across three conditions: blind tasting, ingredient information, and ingredient information with educational phrase of the need for sodium reduction and safety of flavor enhancers. Data were collected for 83 potato chip panelists and 81 puffed rice panelists. A significant difference was seen across the samples with different levels of sodium and flavor enhancers for potato chips (P < 0.01) and puffed rice (P < 0.001). For potato chips, ingredient information increased the acceptance of samples with flavor enhancers. Education increased the liking of samples with short- and long-term sodium reduction and samples that combined only salt and MSG. For puffed rice, ingredient information increased acceptance except the long-term reduced sodium samples with MSG and I + G. Education increased the liking of all samples with MSG and I + G. The combination of flavor enhancers with consumer education increased the acceptance of reduced sodium products. Future research on specific sensory differences across samples that influence acceptability will be valuable for industrial application of the findings. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of our study suggest the overall liking of reduced sodium potato chip and puffed rice samples could be improved with the addition of flavor enhancers. Additionally, reduced sodium product liking was maintained or improved when paired with ingredient labeling and sodium reduction education. The acceptance of reduced sodium products would lead to the decreased risk of hypertension, heart attacks, and strokes for Americans.

Gamma oscillations organize top-down signalling to hypothalamus and enable food seeking.

Both humans and animals seek primary rewards in the environment, even when such rewards do not correspond to current physiological needs. An example of this is a dissociation between food-seeking behaviour and metabolic needs, a notoriously difficult-to-treat symptom of eating disorders. Feeding relies on distinct cell groups in the hypothalamus, the activity of which also changes in anticipation of feeding onset. The hypothalamus receives strong descending inputs from the lateral septum, which is connected, in turn, with cortical networks, but cognitive regulation of feeding-related behaviours is not yet understood. Cortical cognitive processing involves gamma oscillations, which support memory, attention, cognitive flexibility and sensory responses. These functions contribute crucially to feeding behaviour by unknown neural mechanisms. Here we show that coordinated gamma (30-90 Hz) oscillations in the lateral hypothalamus and upstream brain regions organize food-seeking behaviour in mice. Gamma-rhythmic input to the lateral hypothalamus from somatostatin-positive lateral septum cells evokes food approach without affecting food intake. Inhibitory inputs from the lateral septum enable separate signalling by lateral hypothalamus neurons according to their feeding-related activity, making them fire at distinct phases of the gamma oscillation. Upstream, medial prefrontal cortical projections provide gamma-rhythmic inputs to the lateral septum; these inputs are causally associated with improved performance in a food-rewarded learning task. Overall, our work identifies a top-down pathway that uses gamma synchronization to guide the activity of subcortical networks and to regulate feeding behaviour by dynamic reorganization of functional cell groups in the hypothalamus.

Optogenetic and chemogenetic strategies for sustained inhibition of pain.

Spatially targeted, genetically-specific strategies for sustained inhibition of nociceptors may help transform pain science and clinical management. Previous optogenetic strategies to inhibit pain have required constant illumination, and chemogenetic approaches in the periphery have not been shown to inhibit pain. Here, we show that the step-function inhibitory channelrhodopsin, SwiChR, can be used to persistently inhibit pain for long periods of time through infrequent transdermally delivered light pulses, reducing required light exposure by >98% and resolving a long-standing limitation in optogenetic inhibition. We demonstrate that the viral expression of the hM4D receptor in small-diameter primary afferent nociceptor enables chemogenetic inhibition of mechanical and thermal nociception thresholds. Finally, we develop optoPAIN, an optogenetic platform to non-invasively assess changes in pain sensitivity, and use this technique to examine pharmacological and chemogenetic inhibition of pain.

Does information about sugar source influence consumer liking of products made with beet and cane sugars?

Beet sugar contains an off-aroma, which was hypothesized to generate expectations on the acceptability of a product made with beet sugar. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess the impact of information about the sugar source (beet vs. cane) on the overall liking of an orange-flavored beverage. One hundred panelists evaluated an orange-flavored powdered beverage mix and beverage made with beet and cane sugars using a 5-phase testing protocol involving a tetrad test and hedonic ratings performed under blind and informed conditions. Tetrad test results indicated that there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) between the beverage mix made with beet sugar and cane sugar; however, no difference was found between the beverage made with beet sugar and cane sugar. Hedonic ratings revealed the significance of information conditions on the panelists evaluation of sugar (F = 24.67, P < 0.001); however, no difference in the liking was identified for the beverage mix or beverage. Average hedonic scores were higher under informed condition compared to blind condition for all products, possibly because labels tend to reduce uncertainty about a product. Results from this study are representative of the responses from the general population and suggest that they are not affected by sugar source information in a beverage product. Based on concerns with the use of beet sugar expressed in the popular press, there may be a subgroup of the population that has a preconceived bias about sugar sources due to their prior experiences and knowledge and, thus, would be influenced by labels indicating the sugar source used in a product.

Sensory differences between product matrices made with beet and cane sugar sources.

Although beet and cane sugar sources have nearly identical chemical compositions, the sugars differ in their volatile profiles, thermal behaviors, and minor chemical components. Scientific evidence characterizing the impact of these differences on product quality is lacking. The objective of this research was to determine whether panelists could identify a sensory difference between product matrices made with beet and cane sugar sources. Sixty-two panelists used the R-index by ranking method to discern whether there was a difference between 2 brands of beet and 2 brands of cane sugars in regard to their aroma and flavor, along with a difference in pavlova, simple syrup, sugar cookies, pudding, whipped cream, and iced tea made with beet and cane sugars. R-index values and Friedman's rank sum tests showed differences (P < 0.05) between beet and cane sugars in regard to their aroma and flavor. Significant differences between the sugar sources were also identified when incorporated into the pavlova and simple syrup. No difference was observed in the sugar cookies, pudding, whipped cream, and iced tea. Possible explanations for the lack of difference in these products include: (1) masking of beet and cane sensory differences by the flavor and complexity of the product matrix, (2) the relatively small quantity of sugar in these products, and (3) variation within these products being more influential than the sugar source. The findings from this research are relevant to sugar manufacturers and the food industry as a whole, because it identifies differences between beet and cane sugars and product matrices in which beet and cane sugars are not directly interchangeable.

Sensory differences between beet and cane sugar sources.

Research concerning the sensory properties of beet and cane sugars is lacking in the scientific literature. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to determine whether a sensory difference was perceivable between beet and cane sugar sources in regard to their (1) aroma-only, (2) aroma and taste without nose clips, and (3) taste-only with nose clips, and to characterize the difference between the sugar sources using descriptive analysis. One hundred panelists evaluated sugar samples using a tetrad test. A significant difference (P < 0.05) was identified between beet and cane sugar sources when evaluated by aroma-only and taste and aroma without nose clips. However, there was no difference when tasted with nose clips. To characterize the observed differences, ten trained panelists identified and quantified key sensory attributes of beet and cane sugars using descriptive analysis. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences (P < 0.05) between sugar samples for 8 of the 10 attributes including: off-dairy, oxidized, earthy, and barnyard aroma, fruity and burnt sugar aroma-by-mouth, sweet aftertaste, and burnt sugar aftertaste. The sensory profile of beet sugar was characterized by off-dairy, oxidized, earthy, and barnyard aromas and by a burnt sugar aroma-by-mouth and aftertaste, whereas cane sugar was characterized by a fruity aroma-by-mouth and sweet aftertaste. This study shows that beet and cane sugar sources can be differentiated by their aroma and provides a sensory profile characterizing the differences. As sugar is used extensively as a food ingredient, sensory differences between beet and cane sugar sources once incorporated into different product matrices should be studied as a next step.

Modification of ginseng flavors by bitter compounds found in chocolate and coffee.

Ginseng is not widely accepted by U.S. consumers due to its unfamiliar flavors, despite its numerous health benefits. Previous studies have suggested that the bitter compounds in chocolate and coffee may mask the off-flavors of ginseng. The objectives of this study were to: (1) profile sensory characteristics of ginseng extract solution, caffeine solution, cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) solution, theobromine solution, and 2 model solutions simulating chocolate bitterness; and (2) determine the changes in the sensory characteristics of ginseng extract solution by the addition of the bitter compounds found in chocolate and coffee. Thirteen solutions were prepared in concentrations similar to the levels of the bitter compounds found in coffee and chocolate products. Twelve panelists participated in a descriptive analysis panel which included time-intensity ratings. Ginseng extract was characterized as sweeter, starchier, and more green tea than the other sample solutions. Those characteristics of ginseng extract were effectively modified by the addition of caffeine, cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val), and 2 model solutions. A model solution simulating dark chocolate bitterness was the least influenced in intensities of bitterness by the addition of ginseng extract. Results from time-intensity ratings show that the addition of ginseng extract increased duration time in certain bitterness of the 2 model solutions. Bitter compounds found in dark chocolate could be proposed to effectively mask the unique flavors of ginseng. Future studies blending aroma compounds of chocolate and coffee into such model solutions may be conducted to investigate the influence on the perception of the unique flavors through the congruent flavors.

Consumer acceptance of ginseng food products.

Ginseng has been utilized less in food products than in dietary supplements in the United States. Sensory acceptance of ginseng food products by U.S. consumers has not been reported. The objectives of this study were to: (1) determine the sensory acceptance of commercial ginseng food products and (2) assess influence of the addition of sweeteners to ginseng tea and ginseng extract to chocolate on consumer acceptance. Total of 126 consumers participated in 3 sessions for (1) 7 commercial red ginseng food products, (2) 10 ginseng teas varying in levels of sugar or honey, and (3) 10 ginseng milk or dark chocolates varying in levels of ginseng extract. Ginseng candy with vitamin C and ginseng crunchy white chocolate were the most highly accepted, while sliced ginseng root product was the least accepted among the seven commercial products. Sensory acceptance increased in proportion to the content of sugar and honey in ginseng tea, whereas acceptance decreased with increasing content of ginseng extract in milk and dark chocolates. Findings demonstrate that ginseng food product types with which consumers have been already familiar, such as candy and chocolate, will have potential for success in the U.S. market. Chocolate could be suggested as a food matrix into which ginseng can be incorporated, as containing more bioactive compounds than ginseng tea at a similar acceptance level. Future research may include a descriptive analysis with ginseng-based products to identify the key drivers of liking and disliking for successful new product development.

Sensory profile of a model energy drink with varying levels of functional ingredients-caffeine, ginseng, and taurine.

Energy drinks have increased in popularity in recent years due to the claimed energy boost provided by functional ingredients. A multitude of functional ingredients have been utilized; however, there is limited research on their sensory effects in energy drink formulations. A 13-member descriptive analysis panel was conducted to investigate the effects on the sensory and rheological properties of 3 common functional ingredients-caffeine, ginseng, and taurine-in a noncarbonated model energy drink solution. Combinations of these functional ingredients at 3 levels (low, medium, high) were added to create a total of 27 different solutions (3 x 3 x 3 factorial design). Analysis of variance was performed to evaluate the sensory effects of the varying concentrations of functional ingredients in solution. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to summarize the relationship among the attributes and solutions. In general, high levels of caffeine in solution resulted in low ratings of fruity attributes and high ratings of bitter tea and fruit bitter attributes. The high level of ginseng in solution was characterized by high ratings of bitter attributes. A horns effect was observed as the sweet, artificial lemon-lime, pear, mango, and pineapple attributes were rated lower in intensity with increased ginseng levels. Taurine levels of up to 416 mg/100 mL had no significant effect on the sensory attribute ratings of the model energy drink solutions. These findings can be utilized to predict the changes in sensory characteristics when formulating energy drinks containing these popular functional ingredients.

Sensory properties of ginseng solutions modified by masking agents.

Ginseng is one of the most popular functional ingredients found in energy drink formulations. Although ginseng is known for its health benefits, ginseng is also notorious for imparting a bitter taste. Incorporating ginseng into beverages without the bitterness, while still maintaining its health benefits, is necessary for developing an acceptable product. Thus, the objectives of this study were to (1) identify effective treatments for minimizing the bitterness of ginseng in water base and model energy drink base solutions and (2) determine the sensory effects of incorporating different treatment levels to minimize the bitterness of ginseng. A series of pilot studies investigating bitterness reducing treatments were conducted, which included: congruent flavor addition, bitterness blocking agent incorporation, enzymatic modification, ingredient interaction, and complexation. Based on the results of a series of pilot studies, γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) and ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) complexation agents were identified as having the most potential. Effectiveness of the γ-CDs, ß-CDs, and combinations of γ- and ß-CDs were tested in 100 mL water and in 100 mL model energy drink base solutions containing 0.052 g 80% ginsenosides panax ginseng, using descriptive sensory analysis. Twelve trained panelists evaluated 42 solution treatments (3 treatments × 7 levels × 2 bases) for bitter attributes with and without nose clips. Overall, the most effective treatments were 0.09 g γ-CDs in 100 mL of solution and 1 g ß-CDs in 100 mL solution, which both reduced the bitterness intensity of the solutions by half. Incorporation of these levels of CDs in water and model energy drink base solutions containing ginseng will aid in the development of functional beverages that are more acceptable to a wider range of consumers.