Voltage during atrial fibrillation is superior to voltage during sinus rhythm in localizing areas of delayed enhancement on magnetic resonance imaging: An assessment of the posterior left atrium in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Bipolar electrogram voltage during sinus rhythm (VSR) has been used as a surrogate for atrial fibrosis in guiding catheter ablation of persistent atrial fibrillation (AF), but the fixed rate and wavefront characteristics present during sinus rhythm may not accurately reflect underlying functional vulnerabilities responsible for AF maintenance. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was determine whether, given adequate temporal sampling, the spatial distribution of mean AF voltage (VmAF) better correlates with delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging (MRI-DE)-detected atrial fibrosis than VSR. METHODS: AF was mapped (8 seconds) during index ablation for persistent AF (20 patients) using a 20-pole catheter (660 ± 28 points/map). After cardioversion, VSR was mapped (557 ± 326 points/map). Electroanatomic and MRI-DE maps were co-registered in 14 patients. RESULTS: The time course of VmAF was assessed from 1-40 AF cycles (∼8 seconds) at 1113 locations. VmAF stabilized with sampling >4 seconds (mean voltage error 0.05 mV). Paired point analysis of VmAF from segments acquired 30 seconds apart (3667 sites; 15 patients) showed strong correlation (r = 0.95; P <.001). Delayed enhancement (DE) was assessed across the posterior left atrial (LA) wall, occupying 33% ± 13%. VmAF distributions were (median [IQR]) 0.21 [0.14-0.35] mV in DE vs 0.52 [0.34-0.77] mV in non-DE regions. VSR distributions were 1.34 [0.65-2.48] mV in DE vs 2.37 [1.27-3.97] mV in non-DE. VmAF threshold of 0.35 mV yielded sensitivity of 75% and specificity of 79% in detecting MRI-DE compared with 63% and 67%, respectively, for VSR (1.8-mV threshold). CONCLUSION: The correlation between low-voltage and posterior LA MRI-DE is significantly improved when acquired during AF vs sinus rhythm. With adequate sampling, mean AF voltage is a reproducible marker reflecting the functional response to the underlying persistent AF substrate.

Evaluation of a new algorithm for tracking activation during atrial fibrillation using multipolar catheters in humans.

BACKGROUND: Conventional mapping techniques during atrial fibrillation (AF) are difficult to apply because of cycle length irregularity. Mapping studies are usually restricted to short durations of AF in limited regions because of the laborious manual annotation of local activation time (LAT). The purpose of this study was to test an automated algorithm to map activation during AF, with comparable accuracy to manual annotation. METHODS: Left atrial (LA) mapping was performed using a 20-pole double loop catheter (AFocusII) in 30-second data segments from 16 patients. The new algorithm (RETRO-Mapping) was designed to detect wavefront propagation between electrodes, and display activating wavefronts on a two-dimensional representation of the catheter. Activation patterns were validated against their bipolar electrograms and with isochronal maps. The mapping protocol was approved by the research ethics committee (13/LO1169 and 14/LO1367). RESULTS: During AF, uniform wavefront activation direction (mean ± SD, degrees) from manually constructed isochronal maps was comparable to RETRO-Propagation Map (RETRO-PM) and RETRO-Automated Direction (RETRO-AD): 1 ± 6.9 for RETRO-PM; and 2 ± 6.6 for RETRO-AD. There was no significant difference in activation direction assigned to 1373 uniform wavefronts during AF when comparing RETRO-PM with RETRO-AD (Bland-Altman mean difference: -0.1 degrees; limits of agreement: -8.0 to 8.3; 95% CI -0.4 to 0.2; (r = 0.01) R2 = < 0.005; P = .77). CONCLUSION: We have developed and validated a new technique to map activation during AF. This technique shows comparable accuracy to that of conventional isochronal mapping with careful manual adjustment of LAT.

Quantification of Electromechanical Coupling to Prevent Inappropriate Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Shocks.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to test specialized processing of laser Doppler signals for discriminating ventricular fibrillation (VF) from common causes of inappropriate therapies. BACKGROUND: Inappropriate implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) therapies remain a clinically important problem associated with morbidity and mortality. Tissue perfusion biomarkers, implemented to assist automated diagnosis of VF, sometimes mistake artifacts and random noise for perfusion, which could lead to shocks being inappropriately withheld. METHODS: The study tested a novel processing algorithm that combines electrogram data and laser Doppler perfusion monitoring as a method for assessing circulatory status. Fifty patients undergoing VF induction during ICD implantation were recruited. Noninvasive laser Doppler and continuous electrograms were recorded during both sinus rhythm and VF. Two additional scenarios that might have led to inappropriate shocks were simulated for each patient: ventricular lead fracture and T-wave oversensing. The laser Doppler was analyzed using 3 methods for reducing noise: 1) running mean; 2) oscillatory height; and 3) a novel quantification of electromechanical coupling which gates laser Doppler relative to electrograms. In addition, the algorithm was tested during exercise-induced sinus tachycardia. RESULTS: Only the electromechanical coupling algorithm found a clear perfusion cut off between sinus rhythm and VF (sensitivity and specificity of 100%). Sensitivity and specificity remained at 100% during simulated lead fracture and electrogram oversensing. (Area under the curve running mean: 0.91; oscillatory height: 0.86; electromechanical coupling: 1.00). Sinus tachycardia did not cause false positive results. CONCLUSIONS: Quantifying the coupling between electrical and perfusion signals increases reliability of discrimination between VF and artifacts that ICDs may interpret as VF. Incorporating such methods into future ICDs may safely permit reductions of inappropriate shocks.

Simultaneous display of multiple three-dimensional electrophysiological datasets (dot mapping).

AIMS: Complex ablation procedures are supported by accurate representation of an increasing variety of electrophysiological and imaging data within electroanatomic mapping systems (EMS). This study aims to develop a novel method for representing multiple complementary datasets on a single cardiac chamber model. Validation of the system and its application to both atrial and ventricular arrhythmias is examined. METHODS AND RESULTS: Dot mapping was conceived to display multiple datasets by utilizing quantitative surface shading to represent one dataset and finely spaced dots to represent others. Dot positions are randomized within triangular (surface meshes) or tetrahedral (volumetric meshes) simplices making the approach directly transferrable to contemporary EMS. Test data representing uniform electrical activation (n = 10) and focal scarring (n = 10) were used to test dot mapping data perception accuracy. User experience of dot mapping with atrial and ventricular clinical data is evaluated. Dot mapping ensured constant screen dot density for regions of uniform dataset values, regardless of user manipulation of the cardiac chamber. Perception accuracy of dot mapping was equivalent to colour mapping for both propagation direction (1.5 ± 1.8 vs. 4.8 ± 5.3°, P = 0.24) and focal source localization (1.1 ± 0.7 vs. 1.4 ± 0.5 mm, P = 0.88). User acceptance testing revealed equivalent diagnostic accuracy and display fidelity when compared with colour mapping. CONCLUSION: Dot mapping provides the unique ability to display multiple datasets from multiple sources on a single cardiac chamber model. The visual combination of multiple datasets may facilitate interpretation of complex electrophysiological and imaging data.

A Prospective Study of Ripple Mapping the Post-Infarct Ventricular Scar to Guide Substrate Ablation for Ventricular Tachycardia.

BACKGROUND: Post-infarct ventricular tachycardia is associated with channels of surviving myocardium within scar characterized by fractionated and low-amplitude signals usually occurring late during sinus rhythm. Conventional automated algorithms for 3-dimensional electro-anatomic mapping cannot differentiate the delayed local signal of conduction within the scar from the initial far-field signal generated by surrounding healthy tissue. Ripple mapping displays every deflection of an electrogram, thereby providing fully informative activation sequences. We prospectively used CARTO-based ripple maps to identify conducting channels as a target for ablation. METHODS AND RESULTS: High-density bipolar left ventricular endocardial electrograms were collected using CARTO3v4 in sinus rhythm or ventricular pacing and reviewed for ripple mapping conducting channel identification. Fifteen consecutive patients (median age 68 years, left ventricular ejection fraction 30%) were studied (6 month preprocedural implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapies: median 19 ATP events [Q1-Q3=4-93] and 1 shock [Q1-Q3=0-3]). Scar (<1.5 mV) occupied a median 29% of the total surface area (median 540 points collected within scar). A median of 2 ripple mapping conducting channels were seen within each scar (length 60 mm; initial component 0.44 mV; delayed component 0.20 mV; conduction 55 cm/s). Ablation was performed along all identified ripple mapping conducting channels (median 18 lesions) and any presumed interconnected late-activating sites (median 6 lesions; Q1-Q3=2-12). The diastolic isthmus in ventricular tachycardia was mapped in 3 patients and colocated within the ripple mapping conducting channels identified. Ventricular tachycardia was noninducible in 85% of patients post ablation, and 71% remain free of ventricular tachycardia recurrence at 6-month median follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Ripple mapping can be used to identify conduction channels within scar to guide functional substrate ablation.

A Prospective Study of Ripple Mapping in Atrial Tachycardias: A Novel Approach to Interpreting Activation in Low-Voltage Areas.

BACKGROUND: Post ablation atrial tachycardias are characterized by low-voltage signals that challenge current mapping methods. Ripple mapping (RM) displays every electrogram deflection as a bar moving from the cardiac surface, resulting in the impression of propagating wavefronts when a series of bars move consecutively. RM displays fractionated signals in their entirety thereby helping to identify propagating activation in low-voltage areas from nonconducting tissue. We prospectively used RM to study tachycardia activation in the previously ablated left atrium. METHODS AND RESULTS: Patients referred for atrial tachycardia ablation underwent dense electroanatomic point collection using CARTO3v4. RM was played over a bipolar voltage map and used to determine the voltage "activation threshold" that differentiated functional low voltage from nonconducting areas for each map. Ablation was guided by RM, but operators could perform entrainment or review the isochronal activation map for diagnostic uncertainty. Twenty patients were studied. Median RM determined activation threshold was 0.3 mV (0.19-0.33), with nonconducting tissue covering 33±9% of the mapped surface. All tachycardias crossed an isthmus (median, 0.52 mV, 13 mm) bordered by nonconducting tissue (70%) or had a breakout source (median, 0.35 mV) moving away from nonconducting tissue (30%). In reentrant circuits (14/20) the path length was measured (87-202 mm), with 9 of 14 also supporting a bystander circuit (path lengths, 147-234 mm). In breakout tachycardias, splitting of wavefronts resulted in 2 to 4 incomplete circuits. RM-guided ablation interrupted the tachycardia in 19 of 20 cases with the first ablation set. CONCLUSIONS: RM helps to define activation through low-voltage regions and aids ablation of atrial tachycardias.