Effects of Mind-Body Exercises on Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Mind-body exercises (MBEs) have been widely accepted as a complementary therapy for the patients with low exercise tolerance. Currently, the number of experimental studies investigating the effect of MBEs for improving symptoms in people with schizophrenia is increasing. However, results are inconsistent. METHODS: We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed the effects of mind-body exercises on schizophrenia. Seven electronic databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials [CENTRAL], CNKI and Wangfang) were screened through October 2019 and risks of bias of included studies were assessed in Review Manager 5.3. RESULTS: Meta-analysis on 13 studies with 1,159 patients showed moderately significant effects in favor of mind-body exercise intervention to improve positive symptoms (SMD = 0.31; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.60; p = 0.04), negative symptoms (SMD = 0.37; 95% CI 0.14 to 0.60; p = 0.002), and depression (SMD = 0.88; 95% CI 0.63 to 1.13; p<0.00001). Meta-regression analysis revealed that the improvement in positive symptoms was positively associated with the frequency of intervention (p = 0.04), while a marginally significant correlation was observed between the improved negative symptoms and duration of each session (p = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis supports the therapeutic effects of MBEs to aid in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further studies need to incorporate rigorous design and large sample size to identify the optimal type and dose of mind-body exercise to inform clinical practices on MBEs' recommendations for the management of schizophrenia symptoms.

Correlation Between Cognition and Balance Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults Observed Through a Tai Chi Intervention Program.

BACKGROUND: Age-associated decline in cognition and balance may cause severe ability loss for daily living activities among middle-aged and older adults. The relationship between cognition and balance in this aging population remains to be explored. OBJECTIVE: The present study Is exploratory in nature and aimed to examine the relationship between balance (both static and dynamic components) and global cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults through Tai Chi (TC) practice as a research avenue. METHODS: A short-term (12 weeks) intervention of TC was conducted among middle-aged and older adults in the community setting. Global cognitive function (using the Chinese version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment score (MoCA) and balance (i.e., one leg standing test score; Timed Up and Go Test score, TUGT) of all participants were assessed before and after the intervention. Age, body mass index (BMI), sex, and physical fitness variables (Chair Stand Test, CST; the 6-Meter Walk Test, 6MWT) were also collected as confounding factors. RESULTS: Significant moderator effects of baseline CST on the association between the dichotomized baseline MoCA score and the baseline left leg balance score (p = 0.0247), the baseline right leg balance score (p = 0.0140) and the baseline TUGT score (p = 0.0346) were found. Change score of left score balance (p = 0.0192) and change score of TUGT (p = 0.0162) were found to be significantly associated with change score of cognitive function. CONCLUSION: Cognitive function and balance are interrelated in middle-aged and older adults. The association between global cognitive function and balance Is moderated by strength of lower limbs. The change scores of cognitive function and balance introduced by TC training were found to be positively correlated. Future research Is warranted to further confirm the cause-effect relationship of cognitive function and balance and its influencing factors among middle-aged and older adults utilizing intervention studies with larger sample sizes.

Acute exercise and mindfulness meditation on learning and memory: randomized controlled intervention.

Background: The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the potential combined effects of acute exercise and mindfulness mediation on episodic memory. Methods: All data collection occurred in the authors' laboratory (January to May of 2019). In this three-arm, within-subject design, participants (N=20; Mage=21.6 years) completed three counterbalanced laboratory visits, including Exercise Only, Exercise + Meditation and Control. Learning and memory were assessed from a word-list task. A one-factor repeated-measures ANOVA was computed for two memory outcomes, including the learning outcome (average performance across the 6 trials) and the long-term memory recall (10-minute delay). Results: The exercise conditions had a greater learning effect when compared to the Control visit, Mdiff = 0.68 (95% CI: 0.10, 1.25), P = 0.02. The Exercise + Memory visit had better longterm memory when compared to Exercise Only, Mdiff = 0.95 (95% CI: 0.07, 1.83), P = 0.03. Conclusion: The present experiment provides suggestive evidence that acute exercise may enhance learning and, when coupling acute exercise prior to encoding with meditation during early consolidation, long-term memory may be enhanced.

Exercise as an Alternative Approach for Treating Smartphone Addiction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Random Controlled Trials.

BACKGROUND: With the emergence of electronic products, smartphones have become an indispensable tool in our daily life. On the other hand, smartphone addiction has become a public health issue. To help reduce smartphone addiction, cost-effective interventions such as exercise are encouraged. PURPOSE: We therefore performed a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating existing literature on the rehabilitative effects of exercise interventions for individuals with a smartphone addiction. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CNKI, and Wanfang from inception to September 2019. Nine eligible randomized controlled trials (RCT) were finally included for meta-analysis (SMD represents the magnitude of effect of exercise) and their methodological quality were assessed using the PEDro scale. RESULTS: We found significant positive effects of exercise interventions (Taichi, basketball, badminton, dance, run, and bicycle) on reducing the total score (SMD = -1.30, 95% CI -1.53 to -1.07, p < 0.005, I2 = 62%) of smartphone addiction level and its four subscales (withdrawal symptom: SMD = -1.40, 95% CI -1.73 to -1.07, p < 0.001, I2 = 81%; highlight behavior: SMD = -1.95, 95% CI -2.99 to -1.66, p < 0.001, I2 = 79%; social comfort: SMD = -0.99, 95% CI -1.18 to -0.81, p = 0.27, I2 = 21%; mood change: SMD = -0.50, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.69, p = 0.25, I2 = 25%). Furthermore, we found that individuals with severe addiction level (SMD = -1.19, I2 = 0%, 95%CI:-1.19 to -0.98) benefited more from exercise engagement, as compared to those with mild to moderate addiction levels (SMD = - 0.98, I2 = 50%, 95%CI:-1.31 to -0.66); individuals with smartphone addiction who participated in exercise programs of 12 weeks and above showed significantly greater reduction on the total score (SMD = -1.70, I2 = 31.2%, 95% CI -2.04 to -1.36, p = 0.03), as compared to those who participated in less than 12 weeks of exercise intervention (SMD = -1.18, I2 = 0%, 95% CI-1.35 to -1.02, p < 0.00001). In addition, individuals with smartphone addiction who participated in exercise of closed motor skills showed significantly greater reduction on the total score (SMD = -1.22, I2 = 0 %, 95% CI -1.41 to -1.02, p = 0.56), as compared to those who participated in exercise of open motor skills (SMD = -1.17, I2 = 44%, 95% CI-1.47 to -0.0.87, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Exercise interventions may have positive effects on treating smartphone addiction and longer intervention durations may produce greater intervention effects.

Mental Imagery and Acute Exercise on Episodic Memory Function.

Mental imagery is used extensively in the sporting domain. It is used for performance-enhancement purposes, arousal regulation, affective and cognitive modification, and rehabilitation purposes. The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate whether acute exercise and mental imagery of acute exercise have similar effects on cognitive performance, specifically memory function. A within-subject randomized controlled experiment was employed. Participants (N = 24; Mage = 21.5 years) completed two exercise-related visits (i.e., actual exercise and mental imagery of exercise), in a counterbalanced order. The acute-exercise session involved 10 min of intermittent sprints. The mental-imagery session involved a time-matched period of mental imagery. After each manipulation (i.e., acute exercise or mental imagery of acute exercise), memory was evaluated from a paired-associative learning task and a comprehensive evaluation of memory, involving spatial-temporal integration (i.e., what, where, and when aspects of memory). Bayesian analyses were computed to evaluate the effects of actual exercise and mental imagery of exercise on memory function. For the paired-associative learning task, there was moderate evidence in favor of the null hypothesis for a main effect for condition (BF01 = 2.85) and time by condition interaction (BF01 = 3.30). Similarly, there was moderate evidence in favor of the null hypothesis for overall (what-where-when) memory integration (BF01 = 3.37), what-loop (BF01 = 2.34), where-loop (BF01 = 3.45), and when-loop (BF01 = 3.46). This experiment provides moderate evidence in support of the null hypothesis. That is, there was moderate evidence to support a non-differential effect of acute exercise and mental imagery of acute exercise on memory function.

The Effect of Tai Chi Chuan on Negative Emotions in Non-Clinical Populations: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review.

Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) as a typical mind-body practice has been investigated for its preventive role on negative emotions and has demonstrated its efficacy in healthy populations. However, the results are not consistent. We performed a meta-analysis and systematically evaluated the effect of TCC on selected negative emotions (i.e., anxiety and depression). Fourteen experimental studies from three English-and two Chinese-language databases were evaluated. The results showed that the positive effects of TCC on negative emotions were moderately to largely significant. In addition, although TCC significantly improved negative emotions in both the young adults and the older adults, old adults benefited more from TCC than young adults. These findings suggest that TCC is a worthy complementary non-pharmacological resource towards depression and anxiety and, thus, has great implications for the public health domain.

Superior Effects of Modified Chen-Style Tai Chi versus 24-Style Tai Chi on Cognitive Function, Fitness, and Balance Performance in Adults over 55.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive decline and balance impairment are prevalent in the aging population. Previous studies investigated the beneficial effects of 24-style Tai Chi (TC-24) on either cognitive function or balance performance of older adults. It still remains largely unknown whether modified Chen-style TC (MTC) that includes 18 complex movements is more beneficial for these age-related health outcomes, as compared to TC-24. OBJECTIVE: We investigated if MTC would show greater effects than TC-24 on global cognitive function and balance-related outcomes among older adults. METHODS: We conducted a randomized trial where 80 eligible adults aged over 55 were allocated into two different styles of Tai Chi (TC) arms (sixty-minute session × three times per week, 12 weeks). Outcome assessments were performed at three time periods (baseline, Week 6, and Week 12) and included the Chinese Version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) for overall cognitive function, One-leg Standing Test (LST) for static balance, Timed Up and Go Test (TUGT) for dynamic balance, chair Stand Test (CST) for leg power, and the six-meter Walk Test (6MWT) for aerobic exercise capacity. RESULTS: Compared to TC-24 arm, MTC arm demonstrated significantly greater improvements in MoCA, LST, TUGT, CST, and 6MWT (all p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Both forms of TC were effective in enhancing global cognitive function, balance, and fitness. Furthermore, MTC was more effective than TC-24 in enhancing these health-related parameters in an aging population.

Are Mindful Exercises Safe and Beneficial for Treating Chronic Lower Back Pain? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

BACKGROUND: Chronic low back pain (CLBP) is a common health issue worldwide. Tai Chi, Qigong, and Yoga, as the most widely practiced mindful exercises, have promising effects for CLBP-specific symptoms. OBJECTIVE: We therefore conducted a comprehensive review investigating the effects of mindful exercises versus active and/or non-active controls while evaluating the safety and pain-related effects of mindful exercises in adults with CLBP. METHODS: We searched five databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library) from inception to February 2019. Two investigators independently selected 17 eligible randomized controlled trials (RCT) against inclusion and exclusion criteria, followed by data extraction and study quality assessment. Standardized mean difference (SMD) was used to determine the magnitude of mindful exercises versus controls on pain- and disease-specific outcome measures. RESULTS: As compared to control groups, we observed significantly favorable effects of mindful exercises on reducing pain intensity (SMD = -0.37, 95% CI -0.5 to -0.23, p < 0.001, I2 = 45.9 %) and disability (SMD = -0.39, 95% CI -0.49 to -0.28, p < 0.001, I2 = 0 %). When compared with active control alone, mindful exercises showed significantly reduced pain intensity (SMD = -0.40, p < 0.001). Furthermore, of the three mindful exercises, Tai Chi has a significantly superior effect on pain management (SMD= -0.75, 95% CI -1.05 to -0.46, p < 0.001), whereas Yoga-related adverse events were reported in five studies. CONCLUSION: Findings of our systematic review suggest that mindful exercises (Tai Chi and Qigong) may be beneficial for CLBP symptomatic management. In particular, Tai Chi appears to have a superior effect in reducing pain intensity irrespective of non-control comparison or active control comparison (conventional exercises, core training, and physical therapy programs). Importantly, training in these mindful exercises should be implemented with certified instructors to ensure quality of movement and injury prevention.

The Beneficial Effects of Traditional Chinese Exercises for Adults with Low Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Objective: The aim of this meta-analytic review was to quantitatively examine the effects of traditional Chinese exercises (TCE) on pain intensity and back disability in individuals with low back pain (LBP). Methods: Potential articles were retrieved using seven electronic databases (Medline, Embase, Cinahl, Web of Science, Cochrane library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang). The searched period was from inception to 1 March 2019. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the effect of TCE on pain intensity and back disability in LBP patients were included. Pooled effect sizes were calculated using the random-effects models and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). Results: Data from eleven RCTs (886 individuals with LBP) meeting the inclusion criteria were extracted for meta-analysis. Compared with the control intervention, TCE induced significant improvements in the visual analogue scale (VAS) (Hedge's g = -0.64, 95% CI -0.90 to -0.37, p < 0.001), Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ) (Hedge's g = -0.41, 95% CI -0.79 to -0.03, p = 0.03), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) (Hedge's g = -0.96, 95% CI -1.42 to -0.50, p < 0.001), and cognitive function (Hedge's g = -0.62, 95% CI -0.85 to -0.39, p < 0.001). In a meta-regression analysis, age (ß = 0.01, p = 0.02) and total exercise time (ß = -0.0002, p = 0.01) were associated with changes in the VAS scores, respectively. Moderator analyses demonstrated that Tai Chi practice (Hedge's g = -0.87, 95% CI -1.38 to -0.36, p < 0.001) and Qigong (Hedge's g = -0.54, 95% CI -0.86 to -0.23, p < 0.001) reduced VAS scores. Interventions with a frequency of 1-2 times/week (Hedge's g = -0.53, 95% CI -0.98 to -0.07, p = 0.02) and 3-4 times/week (Hedge's g = -0.78, 95% CI -1.15 to -0.42, p < 0.001) were associated with reduced VAS scores, but this significant reduction on this outcome was not observed in the weekly training frequency of ≥5 times (Hedge's g = -0.54, 95% CI -1.16 to 0.08, p = 0.09). Conclusions: TCE may have beneficial effects for reducing pain intensity for individuals with LBP, regardless of their pain status.

Tai Chi as an Alternative Exercise to Improve Physical Fitness for Children and Adolescents with Intellectual Disability.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Tai Chi (TC) on anthropometric parameters and physical fitness among children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). METHODS: Sixty-six Chinese individuals engaged in sport-related extracurricular activities (TC and aerobic exercise (AE)) as exercise interventions or arts/crafts activities as a control condition (CON). The experimental protocol consisted of a baseline assessment, a 12-week intervention period, and a post-intervention assessment. RESULTS: Significant interaction effect was only observed in the performance of a 6-min walk test. After 12 weeks of intervention, the AE group had significant changes in body mass index (p = 0.006, d = 0.11), sit-ups (p = 0.030 and d = 0.57), and 6-min walk test (p = 0.005, d = 0.89). Significant increases in vertical jump (p = 0.048, d = 0.41), lower-limb coordination (p = 0.008, d = 0.53), and upper-limb coordination (p = 0.048, d = 0.36) were observed in the TC group. Furthermore, the TC group demonstrated significantly greater improvements on balance compared to the control group (p = 0.011). CONCLUSIONS: TC may improve leg power and coordination of both lower and upper limbs, while AE may be beneficial for body mass index, sit-ups and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Wuqinxi Qigong as an Alternative Exercise for Improving Risk Factors Associated with Metabolic Syndrome: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Background: The improvement of living standards has led to increases in the prevalence of hypokinetic diseases. In particular, multifactorial complex diseases, such as metabolic syndrome, are becoming more prevalent. Currently, developing effective methods to combat or prevent metabolic syndrome is of critical public health importance. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to evaluate the existing literature regarding the effects of Wuqinxi exercise on reducing risk factors related to metabolic syndrome. Methods: Both English- and Chinese-language databases were searched for randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of Wuqinxi on these outcomes. Meanwhile, we extracted usable data for computing pooled effect size estimates, along with the random-effects model. Results: The synthesized results showed positive effects of Wuqinxi exercise on systolic blood pressure (SBP, SMD = 0.62, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.85, p < 0.001, I2 = 24.06%), diastolic blood pressure (DBP, SMD = 0.62, 95% CI 0.22 to 1.00, p < 0.001, I2 = 61.28%), total plasma cholesterol (TC, SMD = 0.88, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.36, p < 0.001, I2 = 78.71%), triglyceride (TG, SMD = 0.87, 95% CI 0.49 to 1.24, p < 0.001, I2 = 67.22%), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C, SMD = 1.24, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.72, p < 0.001, I2 = 78.27%), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL, SMD = 0.95, 95% CI 0.43 to 1.46, p < 0.001, I2 = 82.27%). In addition, regression results showed that longer-duration Wuqinxi intervention significantly improved DBP (ß = 0.00016, Q = 5.72, df = 1, p = 0.02), TC (ß = -0.00010, Q = 9.03, df = 1, p = 0.01), TG (ß = 0.00012, Q = 6.23, df = 1, p = 0.01), and LDL (ß = 0.00011, Q = 5.52, df = 1, p = 0.02). Conclusions: Wuqinxi may be an effective intervention to alleviate the cardiovascular disease risk factors of metabolic syndrome.

The Beneficial Effects of Mind-Body Exercises for People With Mild Cognitive Impairment: a Systematic Review With Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To objectively evaluate the most common forms of mind-body exercise (MBE) (tai chi, yoga, qigong) on cognitive function among people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). DATA SOURCES: We searched 6 electronic databases (Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, WanFang, Web of Science, CNKI) from inception until September 2018. STUDY SELECTION: Nine randomized controlled trials and 3 nonrandomized controlled trials were included for meta-analysis. DATA EXTRACTION: Two researchers independently performed the literature searches, study selection, data extraction, and methodological quality assessment using the revised Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. DATA SYNTHESIS: The pooled effect size (standardized mean difference [SMD]) was calculated while random-effect model was selected. Overall results of the meta-analysis (N=1298 people with MCI) indicated that MBE significantly improved attention (SMD=0.39, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.07-0.71, P=.02, I2=31.6%, n=245), short-term memory (SMD=0.74, 95% CI 0.57-0.90, P<.001, I2=0%, n=861), executive function (SMD=-0.42, 95% CI -0.63 to -0.21, P<.001, I2=38.54%, n=701), visual-spatial/executive function (SMD=0.35, 95% CI 0.07-0.64, P<.05, I2=0%, n=285), and global cognitive function (SMD=0.36, 95% CI 0.2-0.52, P<.001, I2=15.12%, n=902). However, the significant positive effect on cognitive processing speed was not observed following MBE interventions (SMD=0.31, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.63, P=.054, I2=28.66%, n=233). CONCLUSIONS: Study findings of this meta-analysis suggest that MBE have the potential to improve various cognitive functions in people with MCI.

The Effects of Tai Chi on Markers of Atherosclerosis, Lower-limb Physical Function, and Cognitive Ability in Adults Aged Over 60: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Tai Chi (TC) on arterial stiffness, physical function of lower-limb, and cognitive ability in adults aged over 60. Methods: This study was a prospective and randomized 12-week intervention trial with three repeated measurements (baseline, 6, and 12 weeks). Sixty healthy adults who met the inclusion criteria were randomly allocated into three training conditions (TC-24, TC-42, and TC-56) matched by gender, with 20 participants (10 males, 10 females) in each of the three groups. We measured the following health outcomes, including markers of atherosclerosis, physical function (leg power, and static and dynamic balance) of lower-limb, and cognitive ability. Results: When all three TC groups (p < 0.05) have showed significant improvements on these outcomes but overall cognitive ability at 6 or 12 weeks training period, TC-56 appears to have superior effects on arterial stiffness and static/dynamic balance in the present study. Conclusions: Study results of the present study add to growing body of evidence regarding therapeutic TC for health promotion and disease prevention in aging population. Future studies should further determine whether TC-42 and TC-56 are beneficial for other non-Chinese populations, with rigorous research design and follow-up assessment.

Affective Responses to Acute Bouts of Aerobic Exercise, Mindfulness Meditation, and Combinations of Exercise and Meditation: A Randomized Controlled Intervention.

Single bouts of aerobic exercise and meditation have been shown to induce positive affect. In a novel experimental paradigm, we sought to examine the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise and meditation, as well as exercise and meditation combined on affect among young adults. Participants ( N = 110, mean age = 21.4 years) were randomly assigned to walk, meditate, walk then meditate, meditate then walk, or to sit (inactive control). All walking and meditation bouts were 10 minutes in duration. Participants' affect was monitored before and after the intervention using the Exercise Induced Feelings Inventory. Significant group × time interaction effects were observed for three Exercise Induced Feelings Inventory subscales, including revitalization ( p < .001), tranquility ( p = .02), and exhaustion ( p = .03); the group × time interaction for Exercise Induced Feelings Inventory positive engagement was nonsignificant ( p = .16). A single bout of brisk walking or meditation, as well as a combination of walking and meditation, may positively influence affect. There is some evidence to suggest that affective benefits may be greater following meditation or a combination of meditation and walking, when compared with walking alone.

Experimental effects of brief, single bouts of walking and meditation on mood profile in young adults.

Background: To examine the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise and meditation on mood state among young adults. Methods: Participants (N= 66, mean age = 21.3 years) were randomly assigned to walk,meditate, or sit (control) for 10 minutes. Participants' mood state was monitored before and after the intervention using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. Results: Significant group x time interaction effects were observed for the POMS composite scores (P=0.05). When evaluating three POMS sub scales separately (depression/dejection,anger/hostility, and fatigue/inertia), only fatigue/inertia was found to have a significant group x time effect (P=0.04). Post hoc paired t tests revealed that fatigue/inertia sub scale scores significantly decreased from baseline to post-intervention in both the exercise (P=0.03) and meditation (P<0.001) groups. However, POMS composite scores decreased significantly in the meditation group (P<0.001) but not in the exercise group (P=0.10). Conclusion: A 10-minute bout of brisk walking and meditation both improved mood state,when compared to an inactive control group. A single bout of brisk walking or meditation may offer suitable strategies to improve mood state among young adults.

Experimental Effects of Acute Exercise and Meditation on Parameters of Cognitive Function.

Single bouts of aerobic exercise and meditation have been shown to improve cognitive function. Yet to be examined in the literature, we sought to examine the effects of a combination of acute bouts of aerobic exercise and meditation on cognitive function among young adults. Participants (n = 66, mean (SD) age = 21 (2)) were randomly assigned to walk then meditate, meditate then walk, or to sit (inactive control). All walking and meditation bouts were 10 min in duration. Participants' cognition was monitored before and after the intervention using Identification, Set Shifting, Stroop, and Trail Making tasks. Additionally, a subjective assessment of cognitive function was implemented before and after the intervention. Significant group by time interaction effects were observed when examining the Stroop congruent trials (P = 0.05). Post hoc paired t-tests revealed that reaction time significantly decreased from baseline to post-intervention in both combination groups (P < 0.001 for both), but not in the control group (P = 0.09). Regarding all other cognitive assessments, there were no significant group by time interaction effects (P > 0.05). Cognitive function was not substantially affected by a combination of brief meditation and exercise, though there is evidence to suggest that this combination may have beneficial effects on certain aspects of cognition. Future work should be conducted to evaluate the influences of different doses of exercise and meditation on cognitive functioning.

Experimental effects of acute exercise and music listening on cognitive creativity.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to extend previous experimental work suggesting that both exercise and music-based interventions may influence creativity processes, by investigating the independent influences of exercise or music stimuli on verbal creative performances in the laboratory environment. METHODS: 32 students at the University of Mississippi participated in this within-subject intervention, which included three laboratory visits per participant. Individuals participated in three 15-min, randomized experimental conditions: Treadmill walking, self-selected music, or a seated control period, and subsequently completed four creativity assessments during each visit (three tests of divergent thinking, and one test of convergent thinking), with the order of divergent thinking tasks counterbalanced. Creativity task performance was independently scored across four dependent parameters, which included fluency (i.e., total number of ideas), flexibility (i.e., total number of categories), originality (i.e., responses thought of by <5% of the sample), and elaboration (i.e., degree of supplementary detail included per idea). RESULTS: Repeated Measures ANOVAs indicated that creativity scores for fluency (F(2, 60) = 0.63, p = 0.94), flexibility (F(2, 60) = 0.64, p = 0.53), originality (F(2, 60 = 0.23, p = 0.78), and elaboration (F(2, 60) = 2.74, p = 0.07), were not statistically significant across the visits. CONCLUSIONS: These findings add to the equivocal body of creativity research, uniquely assessing the effects of exercise and music on verbal creativity performance. The present study further highlights the critical need for improvement in the assessment and evaluation of laboratory-assessed cognitive creativity. Methodological strategies must be examined and refined for the meaningful and credible measurement and interpretation of experimental creativity.

Physical activity is associated with higher cognitive function among adults at risk for Alzheimer's disease.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the specific association between physical activity and cognitive function among a national sample of the broader U.S. adult population with a family history of Alzheimer's disease. METHODS: Data from the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were used to identify 219 older adults, ages 60-85, with a family history of Alzheimer's disease. The Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) was used to assess cognitive function, with physical activity assessed via a validated questionnaire. RESULTS: In an unadjusted model, older adults, who had at least one blood relative with Alzheimer's disease, had greater cognitive function when meeting MVPA guidelines in comparison to their inactive counterparts (ß=9.6; 95% CI: 4.6-14.7; P=0.001). After adjustments, results were attenuated, but still statistically significant (8.5; 95% CI: 4.0-13.0; P=0.001). CONCLUSION: In this national sample of individuals at risk for Alzheimer's disease, meeting physical activity guidelines was associated with higher cognitive function.

Effects of acute aerobic exercise or meditation on emotional regulation.

Effective emotional regulation is critical for overall psychological well-being; as such, it is important to investigate potential methods to optimize emotion regulation abilities. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise and meditation on emotional regulation among young adults. Participants (N=63, mean age=21.3yrs) were randomly assigned to stretch (control group, n=21), walk (n=21), or meditate (n=21) for 10-min, after which they were exposed to a film clip (3min) intended to elicit a negative emotional state (e.g., sadness, anger). Participants then viewed 12 International Affective Picture System images validated to elicit a negative valence. Participants' affect (valence and arousal) states were monitored before, during, and after the stretching, walking, and meditation bouts using the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS). Distinct affect was assessed utilizing an affective circumplex measure before and after the stretch/walk/meditation bout, as well as following the film clip and image viewing. A significant group×time interaction effect was present when evaluating circumplex excited: P=0.001 (η2=0.21). Additionally, an interaction effect of meditation and emotional regulation was observed (P=0.009) among those with varying degrees of meditation experience. A 10-min bout of brisk walking and meditation, prior to exposure to a negative emotion cue, did not differentially effect the ability to regulate sadness, anger, or anxiousness when compared to an active stretching control group. Future replicative work addressing this paradigm, which is in support of positive psychology theory, is warranted.

Comparative effects of meditation and exercise on physical and psychosocial health outcomes: a review of randomized controlled trials.

No review papers have examined studies that have directly compared non-active forms of meditation with exercise to evaluate effects on physical or psychosocial outcomes, which was the purpose of this paper. Studies were included if they had a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design, included a non-active form of meditation and exercise as intervention arms, and evaluated physical or psychosocial outcomes. The quality of included RCTs was rated using the Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized trials. Five RCTs met the inclusion criteria. The total sample size across all studies was N = 325. Of the main outcomes assessed across the five studies, meditation was shown to be more effective than the exercise comparison arm when evaluating the psychosocial outcomes of anxiety, altruism, and life changes. Additionally, meditation was more effective at reducing chronic neck pain at rest and pain-related bothersomeness. Exercise, however, was more effective in improving physical health-related quality of life, HDL and LDL cholesterol, and fasting blood glucose levels. The interventions were found to be comparable when evaluating the outcomes of well-being, ethanol consumption, and perceived stress levels. Four of the evaluated studies were determined to have an overall 'unclear' risk of bias and one study was found to have a 'high' risk of bias. Exercise and non-active meditation may uniquely influence various health-related outcomes. A continued exploration of the effects of exercise and non-active meditation in controlled trials may yield a better understanding of their benefits.