Cytochrome c oxidase-modulatory near-infrared light penetration into the human brain: Implications for the noninvasive treatment of ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Near-infrared light (IRL) has been evaluated as a therapeutic for a variety of pathological conditions, including ischemia/reperfusion injury of the brain, which can be caused by an ischemic stroke or cardiac arrest. Strategies have focused on modulating the activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (COX), which has copper centers that broadly absorb IRL between 700 and 1,000 nm. We have recently identified specific COX-inhibitory IRL wavelengths that are profoundly neuroprotective in rodent models of brain ischemia/reperfusion through the following mechanism: COX inhibition by IRL limits mitochondrial membrane potential hyperpolarization during reperfusion, which otherwise causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cell death. Prior to clinical application of IRL on humans, IRL penetration must be tested, which may be wavelength dependent. In the present study, four fresh (unfixed) cadavers and isolated cadaver tissues were used to examine the transmission of infrared light through human biological tissues. We conclude that the transmission of 750 and 940 nm IRL through 4 cm of cadaver head supports the viability of IRL to treat human brain ischemia/reperfusion injury and is similar for skin with different skin pigmentation. We discuss experimental difficulties of working with fresh cadavers and strategies to overcome them as a guide for future studies.

Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Effects of (-)-Epicatechin and Other Polyphenols in Cancer, Inflammation, Diabetes, and Neurodegeneration.

With recent insight into the mechanisms involved in diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, stroke, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes, more efficient modes of treatment are now being assessed. Traditional medicine including the use of natural products is widely practiced around the world, assuming that certain natural products contain the healing properties that may in fact have a preventative role in many of the diseases plaguing the human population. This paper reviews the biological effects of a group of natural compounds called polyphenols, including apigenin, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, and (-)-epicatechin, with a focus on the latter. (-)-Epicatechin has several unique features responsible for a variety of its effects. One of these is its ability to interact with and neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell. (-)-Epicatechin also modulates cell signaling including the MAP kinase pathway, which is involved in cell proliferation. Mutations in this pathway are often associated with malignancies, and the use of (-)-epicatechin holds promise as a preventative agent and as an adjunct for chemotherapy and radiation therapy to improve outcome. This paper discusses the potential of some phenolic compounds to maintain, protect, and possibly reinstate health.

The acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on bench press strength and time to running exhaustion.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement (SUPP) on one-repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press strength and time to running exhaustion (TRE) at a velocity that corresponded to 85% of the peak oxygen uptake ([latin capital V with dot above]O2peak). The study used a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design. Thirty-one men (mean +/- SD age = 23.0 +/- 2.6 years) were randomly assigned to take either the SUPP or placebo (PLAC) first. The SUPP contained 201 mg of caffeine, and the PLAC was microcrystalline cellulose. All subjects were tested for 1-RM bench press strength and TRE at 45 minutes after taking either the SUPP or PLAC. After 1 week of rest, the subjects returned to the laboratory and ingested the opposite substance (SUPP or PLAC) from what was taken during the previous visit. The 1-RM bench press and TRE tests were then performed in the same manner as before. The results indicated that the SUPP had no effect on 1-RM bench press strength or TRE at 85% [latin capital V with dot above]O2peak. It is possible that the acute effects of caffeine are affected by differences in training status and/or the relative intensity of the exercise task. Future studies should examine these issues, in addition to testing the acute effects of various caffeine doses on performance during maximal strength, power, and aerobic activities. These findings do not, however, support the use of caffeine as an ergogenic aid in untrained to moderately trained individuals.

Effects of a protease supplement on eccentric exercise-induced markers of delayed-onset muscle soreness and muscle damage.

This investigation examined the effects of a protease supplement on selected markers of muscle damage and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). The study used a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design. Twenty men (mean +/- SD age = 21.0 +/- 3.1 years) were randomly assigned to either a supplement group (SUPP) or a placebo group (PLAC). All subjects were tested for unilateral isometric forearm flexion strength, hanging joint angle, relaxed arm circumference, subjective pain rating, and plasma creatine kinase activity and myoglobin concentration. The testing occurred before (TIME1), immediately after (TIME2), and 24 (TIME3), 48 (TIME4), and 72 (TIME5) hours after a bout of eccentric exercise. During these tests, the subjects in the SUPP group ingested a protease supplement. The subjects in the PLAC group took microcrystalline cellulose. After testing at TIME5 and 2 weeks of rest, the subjects were crossed over into the opposite group and performed the same tests as during visits 1-5, but with the opposite limb. Overall, isometric forearm flexion strength was greater (7.6%) for the SUPP group than for the PLAC group, despite nearly identical (difference = 0.14 N.m, p = 0.940) mean strength values before (TIME1) the eccentric exercise protocol. There were no between-group differences for hanging joint angle, relaxed arm circumference, subjective pain ratings, and plasma creatine kinase activity and myoglobin concentration from TIME1 to TIME5. These findings provided initial evidence that the protease supplement may be useful for reducing strength loss immediately after eccentric exercise and for aiding in short-term strength recovery. The protease supplement had no effect, however, on the perception of pain associated with DOMS or the blood markers of muscle damage.

Effects of a drink containing creatine, amino acids, and protein combined with ten weeks of resistance training on body composition, strength, and anaerobic performance.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a drink containing creatine, amino acids, and protein vs. a carbohydrate placebo on body composition, strength, muscular endurance, and anaerobic performance before and after 10 weeks of resistance training. Fifty-one men (mean +/- SD; age: 21.8 +/- 2.9 years) were randomly assigned to either the test drink (TEST; n = 23) or the placebo (PLAC; n = 28) and performed two 30-second Wingate Anaerobic Tests for determination of peak power (PP) and mean power (MP), were weighed underwater for percent body fat (%fat) and fat-free mass (FFM), and were tested for 1 repetition maximum (1RM) dynamic constant external resistance strength and muscular endurance (END; number of repetitions performed with 80% of 1RM) on the bilateral leg extension (LE) and free-weight bench press (BP) exercises. The testing was conducted before (PRE) and after (POST) 10 weeks of resistance training (3 sets of 10 repetitions with 80% of the subject's 1RM performed 3 times per week) on the LE and BP exercises. Body weight, FFM, LE 1RM, LE END, BP 1RM, and BP END increased (p < 0.05), whereas %fat decreased (p < 0.05) from PRE to POST for both the TEST and PLAC groups. Peak power and MP, however, increased for the TEST group, but not for the PLAC group. These results suggested that the creatine-, amino acid-, and protein-containing drink provided no additional benefits when compared with carbohydrates alone for eliciting changes in body composition, strength, and muscular endurance after a 10-week resistance training period. The TEST drink was, however, more effective than carbohydrates alone for improving anaerobic power production.

Effects of eight weeks of caffeine supplementation and endurance training on aerobic fitness and body composition.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of daily administration of a supplement that contained caffeine in conjunction with 8 weeks of aerobic training on VO(2)peak, time to running exhaustion at 90% VO(2)peak, body weight, and body composition. Thirty-six college students (14 men and 22 women; mean +/- SD, age 22.4 +/- 2.9 years) volunteered for this investigation and were randomized into either a placebo (n = 18) or supplement group (n = 18). The subjects ingested 1 dose (3 pills = 201 mg of caffeine) of the placebo or supplement per day during the study period. In addition, the subjects performed treadmill running for 45 minutes at 75% of the heart rate at VO(2)peak, three times per week for 8 weeks. All subjects were tested pretraining and posttraining for VO(2)peak, time to running exhaustion (TRE) at 90% VO(2)peak, body weight (BW), percentage body fat (%FAT), fat weight (FW), and fat-free weight (FFW). The results indicated that there were equivalent training-induced increases (p < 0.05) in VO(2)peak and TRE for the supplement and placebo groups, but no changes (p > 0.05) in BW, %FAT, FW, or FFW for either group. These findings indicated that chronic use of the caffeine-containing supplement in the present study, in conjunction with aerobic training, provided no ergogenic effects as measured by VO(2)peak and TRE, and the supplement was of no benefit for altering body weight or body composition.

The acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on strength, muscular endurance, and anaerobic capabilities.

The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on upper- and lower-body strength and muscular endurance as well as anaerobic capabilities. Thirty-seven resistance-trained men (mean +/- SD, age: 21 +/- 2 years) volunteered to participate in this study. On the first laboratory visit, the subjects performed 2 Wingate Anaerobic Tests (WAnTs) to determine peak power (PP) and mean power (MP), as well as tests for 1 repetition maximum (1RM), dynamic constant external resistance strength, and muscular endurance (TOTV; total volume of weight lifted during an endurance test with 80% of the 1RM) on the bilateral leg extension (LE) and free-weight bench press (BP) exercises. Following a minimum of 48 hours of rest, the subjects returned to the laboratory for the second testing session and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: a supplement group (SUPP; n = 17), which ingested a caffeine-containing supplement, or a placebo group (PLAC; n = 20), which ingested a cellulose placebo. One hour after ingesting either the caffeine-containing supplement or the placebo, the subjects performed 2 WAnTs and were tested for 1RM strength and muscular endurance on the LE and BP exercises. The results indicated that there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in BP 1RM for the SUPP group, but not for the PLAC group. The caffeine-containing supplement had no effect, however, on LE 1RM, LE TOTV, BP TOTV, PP, and MP. Thus, the caffeine-containing supplement may be an effective supplement for increasing upper-body strength and, therefore, could be useful for competitive and recreational athletes who perform resistance training.

Effects of leucine and whey protein supplementation during eight weeks of unilateral resistance training.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of resistance training in combination with a leucine and whey protein supplement or a carbohydrate placebo on strength and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). Thirty-three men (mean age +/- SD = 22.4 +/- 2.4 years) were assigned to 1 of 3 groups: (1) supplementation group (SUPP), (2) placebo group (PL), or (3) control group (CON). The SUPP and PL performed unilateral training of the leg extensor muscles with the nondominant limb for 8 weeks. The strength of each limb, muscle CSA of the quadriceps femoris (QF), and body composition were assessed pretraining and posttraining. The results indicated significant increases in strength for both limbs in the SUPP but only the trained limb in the PL. The increase in strength for the trained limb of the SUPP was greater than that for the trained limb of the PL. There was no significant increase in strength for either limb in the CON. There were significant increases in the CSA of all muscles of the QF of the trained limb for the SUPP and PL, and of the vastus lateralis of the untrained limb for the SUPP. The increases in QF CSA did not differ between the SUPP and PL. No significant CSA changes were found for either limb in the CON. There were no significant changes in body composition for the SUPP, PL, or CON. The current findings suggest that leucine and whey protein supplementation may provide an ergogenic effect which enhances the acquisition of strength beyond that achieved with resistance training and a carbohydrate placebo.