Spatial access to opioid treatment program and alcohol and cannabis outlets: analysis of missed doses of methadone during the first, second, and third 90 days of treatment.

Background: The burden of access to opioid treatment programs (OTPs) may change as clients become eligible for take-home privileges. Our previous study showed clients who lived more than 10-miles away from an OTP were more likely to miss methadone doses during the first 30 days of treatment. Proximity to alcohol and cannabis outlets may also negatively influence treatment adherence.Objective: To examine the association between access to this OTP, alcohol and cannabis outlets, and the number of missed methadone doses during the first, second, and third 90 days of treatment.Methods: The number of missed methadone doses was calculated for 752, 689, and 584 clients who remained in treatment, respectively, for at least 3, 6, and 9 months (50% female). Distance between client's home and the OTP, alcohol, and cannabis outlets was measured. Generalized linear models were employed.Results: Shorter distance from a client's residence to the OTP was associated with a decreased number of missed methadone doses during the first 90 days of treatment. Shorter distance to the closest cannabis retail outlet was associated with an increased number of missed methadone doses during the first and second 90 days of treatment. Shorter distance to the closest off-premise alcohol outlet was associated with an increased number of missed methadone doses during the third 90 days of treatment.Conclusions: Improving spatial accessibility of OTPs are essential to ensure treatment opportunities are available for individuals so affected. Exploring to what extent residing in areas that facilitate alcohol and cannabis availability can influence treatment adherence is warranted.

Impact of tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use on treatment outcomes among patients experiencing first episode psychosis: Data from the national RAISE-ETP study.

AIM: The primary aim of this study was to examine the effect of recent tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use on treatment outcomes among participants experiencing first episode psychosis (FEP). METHODS: Secondary data analyses were conducted on 404 participants enrolled in the Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode-Early Treatment Program (RAISE-ETP) study. RAISE-ETP investigated the effectiveness of a coordinated specialty care (CSC) intervention for FEP in community mental health agencies in the United States. Generalized estimating equations were used to examine whether recent tobacco smoking, alcohol, and cannabis use at baseline were associated with illness severity, number of antipsychotic pills missed, psychiatric symptoms and quality of life during the 24-month treatment period, after controlling for duration of untreated psychosis and treatment group. RESULTS: At baseline, roughly 50% (n = 209) of participants reported recent tobacco, 28% (n = 113) alcohol and 24% (n = 95) cannabis use. Tobacco smokers had higher levels of illness severity (ß = .24; P < .005), a higher number of missed pills (ß = 2.89; P < .05), higher psychiatric symptoms and lower quality of life during treatment relative to non-smokers. Alcohol users had a higher number of missed pills (ß = 3.16; P < .05) during treatment and cannabis users had higher levels of illness severity (ß = .18; P < .05) and positive symptoms (ß = 1.56; P < .05) relative to non-users. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use are common in youth seeking treatment for FEP. Tobacco smoking was associated with more negative clinical outcomes. These findings have implications for including interventions targeting these areas of substance use within current CSC models.

Three-year retention in methadone opioid agonist treatment: A survival analysis of clients by dose, area deprivation, and availability of alcohol and cannabis outlets.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of clinical, socio-demographic, and contextual characteristics on treatment retention in an opioid treatment program (OTP). METHODS: A retrospective longitudinal review of 851 clients who received methadone at the only state-funded OTP in Spokane County, Washington between 2015 and 2017. A time variable (the number of days in treatment) and a status indicator (to distinguish between clients who dropped out or censored) worked together to define retention in treatment. Our hypothesized covariates included: area deprivation, distance to the OTP, availability of cannabis retail outlets, availability of on-premise and off-premise alcohol outlets, methadone dosage, age, gender, race, and years on treatment. Cox regression within the family of survival analysis was used to model time-to-event data in the presence of censored cases. RESULTS: The median duration of retention was 394 (95%CI = 324-464) days. In the multivariable Cox regression, factors predicting treatment retention were area deprivation (HR = 1.79, 95%CI = 1.02-3.15, p = 0.04), age (HR=0.99, 95%CI=0.98-.99, p = 0.008), dosage of methadone (HR=0.98, 95%CI=0.98-0.98, p < 0.001), and the number of years on treatment (HR=1.12, 95%CI=1.06-1.18, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study showed age and methadone dosage were protective factors and area deprivation and years on treatment were risk factors for treatment retention. After dichotomizing methadone dosage, a unique finding of this study was that higher dosage of methadone did not lead to increasingly smaller HRs for dropping out of treatment. Considering that opioid use disorder is a chronic condition, efforts need to be made to target factors associated with retention.

Focus groups to increase the cultural acceptability of a contingency management intervention for American Indian and Alaska Native Communities.

INTRODUCTION: Many American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) people seek evidence-based, cost-effective, and culturally acceptable solutions for treating alcohol use disorders. Contingency management (CM) is a feasible, low-cost approach to treating alcohol use disorders that uses "reinforcers" to promote and support alcohol abstinence. CM has not been evaluated among AI/AN communities. This study explored the cultural acceptability of CM and adapted it for use in diverse AI/AN communities. METHODS: We conducted a total of nine focus groups in three AI/AN communities: a rural reservation, an urban health clinic, and a large Alaska Native healthcare system. Respondents included adults in recovery, adults with current drinking problems, service providers, and other interested community members (n = 61). Focus group questions centered on the cultural appropriateness of "reinforcers" used to incentivize abstinence and the cultural acceptability of the intervention. Focus groups were audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded independently by two study team members using both a priori and emergent codes. We then analyzed coded data. RESULTS: Across all three locations, focus group participants described the importance of providing both culturally specific (e.g., bead work and cultural art work supplies), as well as practical (e.g., gas cards and bus passes) reinforcers. Focus group participants underscored the importance of providing reinforcers for the children and family of intervention participants to assist with reengaging with family and rebuilding trust that may have been damaged during alcohol use. Respondents indicated that they believed CM was in alignment with AI/AN cultural values. There was consensus that Elders or a well-respected community member implementing this intervention would enhance participation. Focus group participants emphasized use of the local AI/AN language, in addition to the inclusion of appropriate cultural symbols and imagery in the delivery of the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: A CM intervention for alcohol use disorders should be in alignment with existing cultural and community practices such as alcohol abstinence, is more likely to be successful when Elders and community leaders are champions of the intervention, the intervention is compatible with counseling or treatment methodologies, and the intervention provides rewards that are both culturally specific and practical.

Use of a Mental Health Center Collaborative Care Team to Improve Diabetes Care and Outcomes for Patients With Psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness (compared with usual care) of a collaborative care model to treat community mental health center (CMHC) patients with psychosis and poorly controlled diabetes. METHODS: Stakeholder input was used to adapt a primary care-based collaborative care intervention for CMHC settings. Thirty-five adult CMHC clients with type II diabetes and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) >8% or blood pressure >140/90 were randomized to receive either collaborative care or usual care. Change in HbA1c was evaluated between baseline and three months. Paired t tests were used for within-group comparisons. RESULTS: After three months, intervention participants had a statistically significant mean decrease in HbA1c of 1.1% (p=.049). There was no significant change in HbA1c in the usual-care group. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot demonstrates the feasibility and acceptability of implementing collaborative care in CMHC settings and its preliminary effectiveness in improving glycemic control in a high-risk population.

Prevalence and Correlates of Cannabis Use in Outpatients with Serious Mental Illness Receiving Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorders.

Introduction: People with serious mental illness (SMI) use cannabis more than any other illicit drug. Cannabis use is associated with increased psychotic symptoms and is highly comorbid with alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Despite the national trend toward decriminalization, little is known about the prevalence, correlates, and impact of cannabis use on those with SMI receiving treatment for substance use disorders, a group at high risk for the negative effects of cannabis use. Methods: In this secondary data analysis, cannabis use prevalence, correlates, and impact on treatment outcomes were examined in 121 adults with cooccurring SMI and AUDs receiving outpatient addiction treatment in a randomized trial of contingency management (CM) for alcohol. Prevalence and frequency of cannabis use were calculated across the 7-month study period using self-report and urine tests. Cannabis users were compared with nonusers by SMI diagnosis, psychiatric symptoms, medical problems, legal problems, and HIV-risk behavior. The relationship between cannabis use and longest duration of alcohol abstinence in participants randomized to CM (n=40) was assessed. Results: Fifty-seven (47%) of participants submitted at least one cannabis-positive urine sample during the study. Out of the 2834 total samples submitted, 751 (27%) were positive for cannabis. Cannabis users were 2.2 times more likely to submit an alcohol-positive sample, and 2.5 times more likely to submit a cocaine-positive sample at baseline, relative to noncannabis users (p=0.01). Cannabis users were more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior (p=0.01) and to report being homeless (p=0.03) than nonusers. When controlling for pretreatment alcohol use, the relationship between comorbid cannabis use and alcohol abstinence during CM was not significant (p=0.77). Conclusion: Rates of comorbid cannabis use were high in this sample of adults with SMI and AUDs. Cannabis use was correlated with recent alcohol and cocaine use, risky sexual behavior, and homelessness, but not with alcohol abstinence during CM.

Utility of Point-of-care Urine Drug Tests in the Treatment of Primary Care Patients With Drug Use Disorders.

OBJECTIVES: To determine if urine drug tests (UDTs) can detect under-reporting of drug use (ie, negative self-report, but positive UDT) and identify patient characteristics associated with underreporting when treating substance use disorders in primary care. METHODS: Self-reported use (last 30 d) and UDTs were gathered at baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months from 829 primary care patients participating in a drug use intervention study. Rates of under-reporting were calculated for all drugs, cannabis, stimulants, opioids, and sedatives. Logistic regressions were used to identify characteristics associated with under-reporting. RESULTS: Among the participants, 40% (n = 331) denied drug use in the prior 30 days despite a corresponding positive UDT during at least 1 assessment. Levels of under-reporting during 1 or more assessments were 3% (n = 22) for cannabis, 20% (n = 167) for stimulants, 27% (n = 226) for opioids, and 13% (n = 106) for sedatives. Older (odds ratio [OR] 1.04), female (OR 1.66), or disabled (OR 1.42) individuals were more likely to under-report any drug use. Under-reporting of stimulant use was also more likely in individuals with lower levels of educational attainment, previous arrests, and family and social problems. Under-reporting of opioid use was more likely in those with other drug problems, but less likely in those with better physical health, more severe alcohol and psychiatric comorbidities, and African-Americans. CONCLUSIONS: With the exception of cannabis, UDTs are important assessment tools when treating drug use disorders in primary care. UDTs might be particularly helpful when treating patients who are older, female, disabled, have legal and social problems, and have more severe drug problems.