Opioid pain medication misuse, concomitant substance misuse, and the unmet behavioral health treatment needs of transgender and gender diverse adults.

BACKGROUND: Limited research has explored risk factors for opioid pain medication misuse, concomitant substance misuse, and the unmet behavioral health treatment (BHTx) needs of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) adults. METHODS: In 2019, TGD adults (N = 562) in Massachusetts and Rhode Island were purposively recruited and completed a psychosocial and behavioral health survey (95 % online; 5% in-person). Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine factors associated with past 12-month opioid pain medication misuse and unmet BHTx needs. RESULTS: Overall, 24.4 % of participants were trans women; 32.0 % trans men; and 43.6 % were non-binary. Past-year substance misuse included: marijuana (56.8 %), hazardous drinking (37.5 %), hallucinogens (9.8 %), benzodiazepines (8.2 %), and opioid pain medication (8.0 %). Among participants with past-year substance misuse and BHtx need (n = 326), 81.3 % received BHtx and 18.7 % had unmet BHtx needs. Being a trans woman, having HIV, stigma in healthcare, and number of substances misused were associated with increased odds of past-year opioid pain medication misuse; high social connectedness was associated with decreased odds of opioid pain medication misuse (p-values<0.05). Younger age, stigma in healthcare, and misusing opioid pain medications were associated with increased odds of unmet BHTx needs; post-traumatic stress disorder and family support were associated with decreased odds of unmet BHtx needs (p-values<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Addressing disparities in opioid pain medication misuse among TGD people requires systematic improvements in healthcare access, including efforts to create TGD-inclusive BHtx environments with providers who are equipped to recognize and treat the social and structural drivers of TGD health inequities, including opioid pain medication misuse.

The Longitudinal Effects of Non-injection Substance Use on Sustained HIV Viral Load Undetectability Among MSM and Heterosexual Men in Brazil and Thailand: The Role of ART Adherence and Depressive Symptoms (HPTN 063).

The effect of non-injection substance use on HIV viral load (VL) is understudied in international settings. Data are from HPTN063, a longitudinal observational study of HIV-infected individuals in Brazil, Thailand, and Zambia, with focus on men with VL data (Brazil = 146; Thailand = 159). Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) assessed whether non-injection substance use (stimulants, cannabis, alcohol, polysubstance) was associated with VL undetectability. ART adherence and depressive symptoms were examined as mediators of the association. In Thailand, substance use was not significantly associated with VL undetectability or ART adherence, but alcohol misuse among MSM was associated with increased odds of depression (AOR = 2.75; 95% CI 1.20, 6.32, p = 0.02). In Brazil, alcohol misuse by MSM was associated with decreased odds of undetectable VL (AOR = 0.34; 95% CI 0.13, 0.92, p = 0.03). Polysubstance use by heterosexual men in Brazil was associated with decreased odds of ART adherence (AOR = 0.25; 95% CI 0.08, 0.78, p = 0.02). VL suppression appears attainable among non-injection substance users. Substance use interventions among HIV-positive men should address depression, adherence, and VL undetectability.

Association of Cannabis, Stimulant, and Alcohol use with Mortality Prognosis Among HIV-Infected Men.

Questionnaires over a 9-year study period (2002-2010) were used to characterize cannabis, stimulant, and alcohol use among 3099 HIV-infected men participating in the Veterans Aging Cohort Study (VACS) to determine whether use of these substances is associated with changes in the VACS Index, a validated prognostic indicator for all-cause mortality. At baseline, 18% of participants reported no substance use in the past year, 24% lower risk alcohol use only, 18% unhealthy alcohol use only, 15% cannabis use (with or without alcohol), and 24% stimulant use (with or without alcohol or cannabis). In adjusted longitudinal analyses, cannabis use [ß = -0.97 (95% CI -1.93, 0.00), p = 0.048] was not associated with mortality risk, while stimulant use [1.08 (0.16, 2.00), p = 0.021] was associated with an increased mortality risk, compared to lower risk alcohol use. Our findings show no evidence of a negative effect of cannabis use on mortality risk, while stimulant use was associated with increased mortality risk among HIV-infected men. Interventions to reduce stimulant use in this patient population may reduce mortality.

Perceived Barriers and Facilitators to Integrating HIV Prevention and Treatment with Cross-Sex Hormone Therapy for Transgender Women in Lima, Peru.

Transgender women (TW) represent a vulnerable population at increased risk for HIV infection in Peru. A mixed-methods study with 48 TW and 19 healthcare professionals was conducted between January and February 2015 to explore barriers and facilitators to implementing a model of care that integrates HIV services with gender-affirmative medical care (i.e., hormone therapy) in Lima, Peru. Perceived acceptability of the integrated care model was high among TW and healthcare professionals alike. Barriers included stigma, lack of provider training or Peruvian guidelines regarding optimal TW care, and service delivery obstacles (e.g., legal documents, spatial placement of clinics, hours of operation). The hiring of TW staff was identified as a key facilitator for engagement in health care. Working in partnership with local TW and healthcare provider organizations is critical to overcoming existing barriers to successful implementation of an integrated HIV services and gender-affirmative medical care model for this key population in Peru.

Prevalence and Factors Associated with Hazardous Alcohol Use Among Persons Living with HIV Across the US in the Current Era of Antiretroviral Treatment.

Hazardous alcohol use is associated with detrimental health outcomes among persons living with HIV (PLWH). We examined the prevalence and factors associated with hazardous alcohol use in the current era using several hazardous drinking definitions and binge drinking defined as ≥5 drinks for men versus ≥4 for women. We included 8567 PLWH from 7 U.S. sites from 2013 to 2015. Current hazardous alcohol use was reported by 27% and 34% reported binge drinking. In adjusted analyses, current and past cocaine/crack (odd ratio [OR] 4.1:3.3-5.1, p < 0.001 and OR 1.3:1.1-1.5, p < 0.001 respectively), marijuana (OR 2.5:2.2-2.9, p < 0.001 and OR 1.4:1.2-1.6, p < 0.001), and cigarette use (OR 1.4:1.2-1.6, p < 0.001 and OR 1.3:1.2-1.5, p < 0.001) were associated with increased hazardous alcohol use. The prevalence of hazardous alcohol use remains high in the current era, particularly among younger men. Routine screening and targeted interventions for hazardous alcohol use, potentially bundled with interventions for other drugs, remain a key aspect of HIV care.

Reactions and Receptivity to Framing HIV Prevention Message Concepts About Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for Black and Latino Men Who Have Sex with Men in Three Urban US Cities.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) of color are disproportionately affected by HIV in the United States. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) using antiretroviral medications is a newer biomedical prevention modality with established efficacy for reducing the risk of acquiring HIV. We conducted formative qualitative research to explore audience reactions and receptivity to message concepts on PrEP as part of the development of prevention messages to promote PrEP awareness among black and Latino MSM in the United States. In 2013, 48 black and 42 Latino (total study sample = 90) mixed HIV serostatus MSM from Chicago, Ft. Lauderdale, and Kansas City participated in either an individual interview or focus group discussion. Men were recruited online and at community-based organizations in each city. We elicited feedback on the comprehensibility, credibility, and relevance of two draft messages on PrEP. The messages included efficacy estimates from iPrEx, a phase III clinical trial to ascertain whether the antiretroviral medication tenofovir/emtricitabine disoproxil fumarate (commercially known as Truvada®) could safely and effectively prevent HIV acquisition through sex among MSM and transgender women. With participants' consent, the interviews and focus groups were recorded and transcribed. The data were then summarized and analyzed using a qualitative descriptive approach. The majority of men were unfamiliar with PrEP. It was suggested that additional information about the medication and clinical trials establishing efficacy was needed to enhance the legitimacy and relevancy of the messages. Participants sought to form an opinion of PrEP that was grounded in their own interpretation of the efficacy data. However, confusion about nonadherence among clinical trial subjects and individual versus average risk limited comprehension of these messages. Thematic overlaps suggest that message believability was connected to participants' ability to derive meaning from the PrEP efficacy data. Despite being concerned that other MSM would interpret the messages to mean that condom use was unnecessary while taking PrEP, participants themselves primarily understood PrEP as a supplement rather than a replacement for condoms. Based on their experience with taking antiretroviral medication, HIV-positive men considered condom use a more feasible form of HIV prevention than PrEP. Participants' responses suggest that more information about PrEP and the clinical trial would support the legitimacy of PrEP and the messages as a whole. These details may enhance believability in the concept of PrEP and reinforce confidence in the validity of the efficacy result.

Proactive coping and spirituality among patients who left or remained in antiretroviral treatment in St Petersburg, Russian Federation.

Positive Psychology, the study of "positive" factors or strengths and evidence-based interventions to increase them, is a rapidly developing field that is beginning to be applied to HIV care. Proactive coping and spirituality are two positive characteristics that have been examined in multiple chronic serious health conditions. In the present study, lost-to-care (LTCs; did not attend treatment for ≥12 months; n = 120) and engaged-in-care HIV clinic patients (EICs; attended treatment for ≥12 months and adherent with antiretrovirals; n = 120) in Leningrad Oblast, Russian Federation were compared on the Proactive Coping Inventory and View of God Scale. EICs had higher scores in proactive coping [t(229) = 3.69; p = .001] and instrumental [t(232) = 2.17; p = .03] and emotional [t(233) = 2.33; p = .02] support, indicating that they engage in autonomous goal setting and self-regulate their thoughts and behaviors; obtain advice and support from their social network; and cope with emotional distress by turning to others. LTCs had higher scores in avoidance coping [t(236) = -2.31; p = .02]. More EICs were spiritual, religious, or both [ χ(2)(1, N = 239) = 7.49, p = .006]. EICs were more likely to believe in God/Higher Power [χ(2)(1, N = 239 = 8.89, p = .002] and an afterlife [ χ(2)(1, N = 236) = 5.11, p = .024]; have a relationship with God/Higher Power [ χ(2)(1, N = 237) = 12.76, p = .000]; and call on God/Higher Power for help, healing, or protection [ χ(2)(1, N = 239) = 9.61]. EICs had more positive [t(238) = 2.78; p = .006] and less negative [t(236) = -2.38; p = .002] views of God. Similar proportions, but slightly more EICs than LTCs were members of a faith community; members of a12-step group; or attended religious or spiritual services, meetings, or activities. More EICs than LTCs engaged in private spiritual or religious activities, such as prayer or meditation [ χ(2)(1, N = 239) = 9.226, p = .002].

Lost-to-care and engaged-in-care HIV patients in Leningrad Oblast, Russian Federation: barriers and facilitators to medical visit retention.

Sixty-nine percent of the 1.5 million Eastern Europeans and Central Asians with HIV live in the Russian Federation. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is effective but cannot help those who leave treatment. Focus groups with patients who dropped out of ART for ≥12 months (lost-to-care, LTCs, n = 21) or continued for ≥12 months (engaged-in-care; EICs; n = 24) were conducted in St. Petersburg. Structural barriers included stigma/discrimination and problems with providers and accessing treatment. Individual barriers included employment and caring for dependents, inaccurate beliefs about ART (LTC only), side-effects, substance use (LTCs, present; EICs, past), and depression. Desire to live, social support, and spirituality were facilitators for both; EICs also identified positive thinking and experiences with ART and healthcare/professionals. Interventions to facilitate retention and adherence are discussed.

Cognitive behavioral therapy vs relaxation with educational support for medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: a randomized controlled trial.

CONTEXT: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adulthood is a prevalent, distressing, and impairing condition that is not fully treated by pharmacotherapy alone and lacks evidence-based psychosocial treatments. OBJECTIVE: To test cognitive behavioral therapy for ADHD in adults treated with medication but who still have clinically significant symptoms. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS: Randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for 86 symptomatic adults with ADHD who were already being treated with medication. The study was conducted at a US hospital between November 2004 and June 2008 (follow-up was conducted through July 2009). Of the 86 patients randomized, 79 completed treatment and 70 completed the follow-up assessments. INTERVENTIONS: Patients were randomized to 12 individual sessions of either cognitive behavioral therapy or relaxation with educational support (which is an attention-matched comparison). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary measures were ADHD symptoms rated by an assessor (ADHD rating scale and Clinical Global Impression scale) at baseline, posttreatment, and at 6- and 12-month follow-up. The assessor was blinded to treatment condition assignment. The secondary outcome measure was self-report of ADHD symptoms. RESULTS: Cognitive behavioral therapy achieved lower posttreatment scores on both the Clinical Global Impression scale (magnitude -0.0531; 95% confidence interval [CI], -1.01 to -0.05; P = .03) and the ADHD rating scale (magnitude -4.631; 95% CI, -8.30 to -0.963; P = .02) compared with relaxation with educational support. Throughout treatment, self-reported symptoms were also significantly more improved for cognitive behavioral therapy (beta = -0.41; 95% CI, -0.64 to -0.17; P <001), and there were more treatment responders in cognitive behavioral therapy for both the Clinical Global Impression scale (53% vs 23%; odds ratio [OR], 3.80; 95% CI, 1.50 to 9.59; P = .01) and the ADHD rating scale (67% vs 33%; OR, 4.29; 95% CI, 1.74 to 10.58; P = .002). Responders and partial responders in the cognitive behavioral therapy condition maintained their gains over 6 and 12 months. CONCLUSION: Among adults with persistent ADHD symptoms treated with medication, the use of cognitive behavioral therapy compared with relaxation with educational support resulted in improved ADHD symptoms, which were maintained at 12 months. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00118911.

Mental health and HIV risk in men who have sex with men.

Evidence-based HIV prevention interventions with men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States have moderate effect sizes in reducing HIV sexual risk behavior. Mental health and psychosocial problems, which both disproportionately affect MSM populations and are implicated in HIV transmission risk behaviors, also likely interfere with the uptake of HIV behavioral interventions. Moreover, given that mental health and psychosocial problems such as depression, substance use, and violence frequently co-occur for many MSM (eg, as syndemic conditions), what is probably needed are combination prevention efforts, or prevention "cocktails," similar to treatment "cocktails," that address the psychological and behavioral mechanisms that interact to produce elevated risk for HIV. Such interventions should incorporate a holistic framework to address the sexual health and overall well being of MSM. Addressing co-occurring psychosocial risk factors is apt to improve effect sizes of current HIV prevention interventions and allow for more effective uptake by MSM.