Identification of a fatty acid binding protein4-UCP2 axis regulating microglial mediated neuroinflammation.

Hypothalamic inflammation contributes to metabolic dysregulation and the onset of obesity. Dietary saturated fats activate microglia via a nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) mediated pathway to release pro-inflammatory cytokines resulting in dysfunction or death of surrounding neurons. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) are lipid chaperones regulating metabolic and inflammatory pathways in response to fatty acids. Loss of FABP4 in peripheral macrophages via either molecular or pharmacologic mechanisms results in reduced obesity-induced inflammation via a UCP2-redox based mechanism. Despite the widespread appreciation for the role of FABP4 in mediating peripheral inflammation, the expression of FABP4 and a potential FABP4-UCP2 axis regulating microglial inflammatory capacity is largely uncharacterized. To that end, we hypothesized that microglial cells express FABP4 and that inhibition would upregulate UCP2 and attenuate palmitic acid (PA)-induced pro-inflammatory response. Gene expression confirmed expression of FABP4 in brain tissue lysate from C57Bl/6J mice and BV2 microglia. Treatment of microglial cells with an FABP inhibitor (HTS01037) increased expression of Ucp2 and arginase in the presence or absence of PA. Moreover, cells exposed to HTS01037 exhibited attenuated expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) compared to PA alone indicating reduced NFκB signaling. Hypothalamic tissue from mice lacking FABP4 exhibit increased UCP2 expression and reduced iNOS, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1; microglial activation marker) expression compared to wild type mice. Further, this effect is negated in microglia lacking UCP2, indicating the FABP4-UCP2 axis is pivotal in obesity induced neuroinflammation. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating a FABP4-UCP2 axis with the potential to modulate the microglial inflammatory response.

Microglia as a Surrogate Biosensor to Determine Nanoparticle Neurotoxicity.

Nanoparticles found in air pollutants can alter neurotransmitter profiles, increase neuroinflammation, and alter brain function. Therefore, the assay described here will aid in elucidating the role of microglia in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. The use of microglia, resident immune cells of the brain, as a surrogate biosensor provides novel insight into how inflammatory responses mediate neuronal insults. Here, we utilize an immortalized murine microglial cell line, designated BV2, and describe a method for nanoparticle exposure using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as a standard. We describe how to expose microglia to nanoparticles, how to remove nanoparticles from supernatant, and how to use supernatant from activated microglia to determine toxicity, using hypothalamic cell survival as a measure. Following AgNP exposure, BV2 microglial activation was validated using a tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The supernatant was filtered to remove the AgNP and to allow cytokines and other secreted factors to remain in the conditioned media. Hypothalamic cells were then exposed to supernatant from AgNP activated microglia and survival of neurons was determined using a resazurin-based fluorescent assay. This technique is useful for utilizing microglia as a surrogate biomarker of neuroinflammation and determining the effect of neuroinflammation on other cell types.

Orexin A attenuates palmitic acid-induced hypothalamic cell death.

Palmitic acid (PA), an abundant dietary saturated fatty acid, contributes to obesity and hypothalamic dysregulation in part through increase in oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and neuroinflammation. Increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a result of PA exposure contributes to the onset of neuronal apoptosis. Additionally, high fat diets lead to changes in hypothalamic gene expression profiles including suppression of the anti-apoptotic protein B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and upregulation of the pro-apoptotic protein B cell lymphoma 2 associated X protein (Bax). Orexin A (OXA), a hypothalamic peptide important in obesity resistance, also contributes to neuroprotection. Prior studies have demonstrated that OXA attenuates oxidative stress induced cell death. We hypothesized that OXA would be neuroprotective against PA induced cell death. To test this, we treated an immortalized hypothalamic cell line (designated mHypoA-1/2) with OXA and PA. We demonstrate that OXA attenuates PA-induced hypothalamic cell death via reduced caspase-3/7 apoptosis, stabilization of Bcl-2 gene expression, and reduced Bax/Bcl-2 gene expression ratio. We also found that OXA inhibits ROS production after PA exposure. Finally, we show that PA exposure in mHypoA-1/2 cells significantly reduces basal respiration, maximum respiration, ATP production, and reserve capacity. However, OXA treatment reverses PA-induced changes in intracellular metabolism, increasing basal respiration, maximum respiration, ATP production, and reserve capacity. Collectively, these results support that OXA protects against PA-induced hypothalamic dysregulation, and may represent one mechanism through which OXA can ameliorate effects of obesogenic diet on brain health.

Role of orexin A signaling in dietary palmitic acid-activated microglial cells.

Excess dietary saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (PA) induce peripheral and hypothalamic inflammation. Hypothalamic inflammation, mediated in part by microglial activation, contributes to metabolic dysregulation. In rodents, high fat diet-induced microglial activation results in nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB), and increased central pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). The hypothalamic neuropeptide orexin A (OXA, hypocretin 1) is neuroprotective in brain. In cortex, OXA can also reduce inflammation and neurodegeneration through a microglial-mediated pathway. Whether hypothalamic orexin neuroprotection mechanisms depend upon microglia is unknown. To address this issue, we evaluated effects of OXA and PA on inflammatory response in immortalized murine microglial and hypothalamic neuronal cell lines. We demonstrate for the first time in microglial cells that exposure to PA increases gene expression of orexin-1 receptor but not orexin-2 receptor. Pro-inflammatory markers IL-6, TNF-α, and inducible nitric oxide synthase in microglial cells are increased following PA exposure, but are reduced by pretreatment with OXA. The anti-inflammatory marker arginase-1 is increased by OXA. Finally, we show hypothalamic neurons exposed to conditioned media from PA-challenged microglia have increased cell survival only when microglia were pretreated with OXA. These data support the concept that OXA may act as an immunomodulatory regulator of microglia, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and increasing anti-inflammatory factors to promote a favorable neuronal microenvironment.

Sleep disorders, obesity, and aging: the role of orexin.

The hypothalamic neuropeptides orexin A and B (hypocretin 1 and 2) are important homeostatic mediators of central control of energy metabolism and maintenance of sleep/wake states. Dysregulation or loss of orexin signaling has been linked to narcolepsy, obesity, and age-related disorders. In this review, we present an overview of our current understanding of orexin function, focusing on sleep disorders, energy balance, and aging, in both rodents and humans. We first discuss animal models used in studies of obesity and sleep, including loss of function using transgenic or viral-mediated approaches, gain of function models using exogenous delivery of orexin receptor agonist, and naturally-occurring models in which orexin responsiveness varies by individual. We next explore rodent models of orexin in aging, presenting evidence that orexin loss contributes to age-related changes in sleep and energy balance. In the next section, we focus on clinical importance of orexin in human obesity, sleep, and aging. We include discussion of orexin loss in narcolepsy and potential importance of orexin in insomnia, correlations between animal and human studies of age-related decline, and evidence for orexin involvement in age-related changes in cognitive performance. Finally, we present a summary of recent studies of orexin in neurodegenerative disease. We conclude that orexin acts as an integrative homeostatic signal influencing numerous brain regions, and that this pivotal role results in potential dysregulation of multiple physiological processes when orexin signaling is disrupted or lost.

Use of a caspase multiplexing assay to determine apoptosis in a hypothalamic cell model.

The ability to multiplex assays in studies of complex cellular mechanisms eliminates the need for repetitive experiments, provides internal controls, and decreases waste in costs and reagents. Here we describe optimization of a multiplex assay to assess apoptosis following a palmitic acid (PA) challenge in an in vitro hypothalamic model, using both fluorescent and luminescent based assays to measure viable cell counts and caspase-3/7 activity in a 96-well microtiter plate format. Following PA challenge, viable cells were determined by a resazurin-based fluorescent assay. Caspase-3/7 activity was then determined using a luminogenic substrate, DEVD, and normalized to cell number. This multiplexing assay is a useful technique for determining change in caspase activity following an apoptotic stimulus, such as saturated fatty acid challenge. The saturated fatty acid PA can increase hypothalamic oxidative stress and apoptosis, indicating the potential importance of assays such as that described here in studying the relationship between saturated fatty acids and neuronal function.

Orexin A decreases lipid peroxidation and apoptosis in a novel hypothalamic cell model.

Current data support the idea that hypothalamic neuropeptide orexin A (OxA; hypocretin 1) mediates resistance to high fat diet-induced obesity. We previously demonstrated that OxA elevates spontaneous physical activity (SPA), that rodents with high SPA have higher endogenous orexin sensitivity, and that OxA-induced SPA contributes to obesity resistance in rodents. Recent reports show that OxA can confer neuroprotection against ischemic damage, and may decrease lipid peroxidation. This is noteworthy as independent lines of evidence indicate that diets high in saturated fats can decrease SPA, increase hypothalamic apoptosis, and lead to obesity. Together data suggest OxA may protect against obesity both by inducing SPA and by modulation of anti-apoptotic mechanisms. While OxA effects on SPA are well characterized, little is known about the short- and long-term effects of hypothalamic OxA signaling on intracellular neuronal metabolic status, or the physiological relevance of such signaling to SPA. To address this issue, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects of OxA in a novel immortalized primary embryonic rat hypothalamic cell line. We demonstrate for the first time that OxA increases cell viability during hydrogen peroxide challenge, decreases hydrogen peroxide-induced lipid peroxidative stress, and decreases caspase 3/7 induced apoptosis in an in vitro hypothalamic model. Our data support the hypothesis that OxA may promote obesity resistance both by increasing SPA, and by influencing survival of OxA-responsive hypothalamic neurons. Further identification of the individual mediators of the anti-apoptotic and peroxidative effects of OxA on target neurons could lead to therapies designed to maintain elevated SPA and increase obesity resistance.

Neuropeptides controlling energy balance: orexins and neuromedins.

In this chapter, we review the feeding and energy expenditure effects of orexin (also known as hypocretin) and neuromedin. Orexins are multifunctional neuropeptides that affect energy balance by participating in regulation of appetite, arousal, and spontaneous physical activity. Central orexin signaling for all functions originates in the lateral hypothalamus-perifornical area and is likely functionally differentiated based on site of action and on interacting neural influences. The effect of orexin on feeding is likely related to arousal in some ways but is nonetheless a separate neural process that depends on interactions with other feeding-related neuropeptides. In a pattern distinct from other neuropeptides, orexin stimulates both feeding and energy expenditure. Orexin increases in energy expenditure are mainly by increasing spontaneous physical activity, and this energy expenditure effect is more potent than the effect on feeding. Global orexin manipulations, such as in transgenic models, produce energy balance changes consistent with a dominant energy expenditure effect of orexin. Neuromedins are gut-brain peptides that reduce appetite. There are gut sources of neuromedin, but likely the key appetite-related neuromedin-producing neurons are in the hypothalamus and parallel other key anorectic neuropeptide expression in the arcuate to paraventricular hypothalamic projection. As with other hypothalamic feeding-related peptides, hindbrain sites are likely also important sources and targets of neuromedin anorectic action. Neuromedin increases physical activity in addition to reducing appetite, thus producing a consistent negative energy balance effect. Together with the other various neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neurohormones, neuromedin and orexin act in the appetite network to produce changes in food intake and energy expenditure, which ultimately influences the regulation of body weight.