Biogenic engineered nanomaterials for enhancing bioavailability via developing nano-iron-fortified smart foods: advances, insight, and prospects of nanobionics in fortification of food.

Iron deficiency is a significant cause of iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Treatment of IDA is challenging due to several challenges, including low target bioavailability, low palatability, poor pharmacokinetics, and extended therapeutic regimes. Nanotechnology holds the promise of revolutionizing the management and treatment of IDA. Smart biogenic engineered nanomaterials (BENMs) such as lipids, protein, carbohydrates, and complex nanomaterials have been the subject of extensive research and opened new avenues for people and the planet due to their enhanced physicochemical, rheological, optoelectronic, thermomechanical, biological, magnetic, and nutritional properties. Additionally, they show eco-sustainability, low biotoxicity, active targeting, enhanced permeation and retention, and stimuli-responsive characteristics. We examine the opportunities offered by emerging smart BENMs for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia by utilizing iron-fortified smart foods. We review the progress made so far and other future directions to maximize the impact of smart nanofortification on the global population. The toxicity effects are also discussed with commercialization challenges.

Scope of Onsite, Portable Prevention Diagnostic Strategies for Alternaria Infections in Medicinal Plants.

Medicinal plants are constantly challenged by different biotic inconveniences, which not only cause yield and economic losses but also affect the quality of products derived from them. Among them, Alternaria pathogens are one of the harmful fungal pathogens in medicinal plants across the globe. Therefore, a fast and accurate detection method in the early stage is needed to avoid significant economic losses. Although traditional methods are available to detect Alternaria, they are more time-consuming and costly and need good expertise. Nevertheless, numerous biochemical- and molecular-based techniques are available for the detection of plant diseases, but their efficacy is constrained by differences in their accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, dependability, and speed in addition to being unsuitable for direct on-field studies. Considering the effect of Alternaria on medicinal plants, the development of novel and early detection measures is required to detect causal Alternaria species accurately, sensitively, and rapidly that can be further applied in fields to speed up the advancement process in detection strategies. In this regard, nanotechnology can be employed to develop portable biosensors suitable for early and correct pathogenic disease detection on the field. It also provides an efficient future scope to convert innovative nanoparticle-derived fabricated biomolecules and biosensor approaches in the diagnostics of disease-causing pathogens in important medicinal plants. In this review, we summarize the traditional methods, including immunological and molecular methods, utilized in plant-disease diagnostics. We also brief advanced automobile and efficient sensing technologies for diagnostics. Here we are proposing an idea with a focus on the development of electrochemical and/or colorimetric properties-based nano-biosensors that could be useful in the early detection of Alternaria and other plant pathogens in important medicinal plants. In addition, we discuss challenges faced during the fabrication of biosensors and new capabilities of the technology that provide information regarding disease management strategies.

Insights into cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition by isolated bioactive compounds 3-caffeoyl-4-dihydrocaffeoyl quinic acid and isorhamnetin 3-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside from Salicornia herbacea.

BACKGROUND: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an important enzyme with numerous biological functions. Overexpression of COX-2 has been associated with various inflammatory-related diseases and therefore, projected as an important pharmacological target. PURPOSE: We aimed to investigate the inhibitory potential of isolated bioactive compounds, 3-caffeoyl-4-dihydrocaffeoyl quinic acid (CDQ) and isorhamnetin 3-O-ß-d-glucopyranoside (IDG), from Salicornia herbacea against COX-2 using both computational and in vitro approaches. METHODS: Computational analysis, including molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and post-simulations analysis, were employed to estimate the binding affinity and stability of CDQ and IDG in the catalytic pocket of COX-2 against Celecoxib as positive control. These predictions were further evaluated using in vitro enzyme inhibition as well as gene expression mediation in macrophages cells. RESULTS: Molecular docking analysis revealed substantial binding energy of CDQ (-6.1 kcal/mol) and IDG (-5.9 kcal/mol) with COX-2, which are lower than Celecoxib (-8.1 kcal/mol). MD simulations (100 ns) and post simulation analysis exhibited the substantial stability and binding affinity of docked CDQ and IDG compounds with COX-2. In vitro assays indicated significant COX-2 inhibition by CDQ (IC50 = 76.91 ± 2.33 µM) and IDG (IC50 = 126.06 ± 9.44 µM). This result supported the inhibitory potential of isolated bioactive compounds against COX-2. Also, a cellular level study revealed a downregulation of COX-2 expression in tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with CDQ and IDG. CONCLUSION: Computational and experimental analysis of CDQ and IDG from S. herbacea established their potential in the inhibition and mediation of COX-2. Hence, CDQ and IDG can be considered for therapeutic development against COX-2 linked disorders, such as inflammation and cancer. Furthermore, CDQ and IDG structures can be served as a lead compound for the development of advanced novel anti-inflammatory drugs.

Multifunctional N-P-doped carbon dots for regulation of apoptosis and autophagy in B16F10 melanoma cancer cells and in vitro imaging applications.

Rationale: The present study reports the multifunctional anticancer activity against B16F10 melanoma cancer cells and the bioimaging ability of fluorescent nitrogen-phosphorous-doped carbon dots (NPCDs). Methods: The NPCDs were synthesized using a single-step, thermal treatment and were characterized by TEM, XPS, fluorescence and UV-Vis spectroscopy, and FTIR analysis. The anticancer efficacy of NPCDs was confirmed by using cell viability assay, morphological evaluation, fluorescent live-dead cell assay, mitochondrial potential assay, ROS production, RT-PCR, western-blot analysis, siRNA transfection, and cellular bioimaging ability. Results: The NPCDs inhibited the proliferation of B16F10 melanoma cancer cells after 24 h of treatment and induced apoptosis, as confirmed by the presence of fragmented nuclei, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and elevated levels of reactive oxygen species. The NPCDs treatment further elevated the levels of pro-apoptotic factors and down-regulated the level of Bcl2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) that weakened the mitochondrial membrane, and activated proteases such as caspases. Treatment with NPCDs also resulted in dose-dependent cell cycle arrest, as indicated by reduced cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-2, -4, and -6 protein levels and an enhanced level of p21. More importantly, the NPCDs induced the activation of autophagy by upregulating the protein expression levels of LC3-II and ATG-5 (autophagy-related-5) and by downregulating p62 level, validated by knockdown of ATG-5. Additionally, owing to their excellent luminescence property, these NPCDs were also applicable in cellular bioimaging, as evidenced by the microscopic fluorescence imaging of B16F10 melanoma cells. Conclusion: Based on these findings, we conclude that our newly synthesized NPCDs induced cell cycle arrest, autophagy, and apoptosis in B16F10 melanoma cells and presented good cellular bioimaging capability.

N,P-Doped Carbon Nanodots for Food-Matrix Decontamination, Anticancer Potential, and Cellular Bio-Imaging Applications.

We report a facile one-step thermal treatment method for the synthesis of biocompatible, fluorescent nitrogen-phosphorus-doped carbon nanodots (NPCDs) as multifunctional agents for the food matrix decontamination, cancer targeting, and cellular bio-imaging. NPCDs exhibit high toxicity towards L. monocytogenes, as illustrated by fluorescent live-dead cell counting, disruption of membrane permeability/potential, changes in the levels of cellular ions, genetic materials, and proteins, as well as intracellular production of reactive oxygen species. The tryptophan and protein peaks released in NPCDs treated cells contributed to indole ring breathing and correlated with induced cell death. NPCDs significantly inhibited bacterial biofilm formation on a solid substrate. NPCDs-coated low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film crosslinked with 1% aminopropyltriethoxy silane (APTES) via silane-hydroxyl linking as a food-grade wrap significantly reduced bacterial counts in a raw chicken food model. Furthermore, NPCDs induced apoptosis in HeLa cervical cancer cells, as confirmed by the distorted cell morphology, fluorescence microscopic analysis, presence of fragmented nuclei and the qPCR results of mRNA expression levels of apoptotic markers. Moreover, NPCDs were also applicable in utilized for the cellular bio-imaging of KM12-C colon cancer cells under confocal microscopy owing to their excellent luminescence properties. Overall, NPCDs represent a promising platform to reduce the environmental health risks associated with hazardous pathogens, anticancer targeting, and their application in cellular bio-imaging as multifunctional targets/nanocarriers.

Toxicological evaluation of lotus, ginkgo, and garlic tailored fermented Korean soybean paste (Doenjang) for biogenic amines, aflatoxins, and microbial hazards.

The present study aimed to develop a consortium of nutritive fermented food products, supplemented with phytochemicals, with reduced toxicological contents. We developed new flavored Doenjang products (protein rich) fermented with lotus, ginkgo, and garlic plant extract-based Meju (termed as EMD) as the starter culture and by using traditional Meju (termed as TMD), where these plant extracts were added later during the fermentation process. Fermented Doenjang samples were analyzed for reduced levels of biogenic amines (BAs), aflatoxins, and microbial hazards, (including Bacillus cereus) as well as for their nutritive contents and antioxidant potential, after varying periods of fermentation (0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months). All Doenjang samples prepared using plant extracts and their mixtures (1% and 10%) showed desired reduction in B. cereus counts, BAs, aflatoxins, and other foodborne pathogens as well as showed potent antioxidant abilities, including phenolic/flavonoid contents. Based on the higher efficiency in reducing various toxicants, Ginkgo biloba leaf extract added TMD samples were selected for the development of Doenjang products as an innovative approach, with great potential to improve the quality and safety of soybean fermented products in the Korean market, offering enhanced health benefits and reduced risks of toxicity.

Carvacrol inhibits cytochrome P450 and protects against binge alcohol-induced liver toxicity.

Alcoholism is a serious addiction that can lead to various health complications such as liver fibrosis, steatosis, and cirrhosis. Carvacrol is present in many plant-based essential oils and used as a preservative in the food industry. In this study, we have investigated the hepatoprotective role of carvacrol against ethanol-induced liver toxicity in mice. To determine the effect of carvacrol on liver injury parameters, 5 doses of 50% ethanol (10 mL/kg body weight) were orally administered every 12 h for inducing the hepatotoxicity in experimental mice. Interestingly, carvacrol pre-treatment (50 and 100 mg/kg) reversed the ethanol-induced effects on liver function, antioxidant markers, matrix metalloproteinases activities, and histological changes. Moreover, carvacrol binds to the active pocket of cytochrome P450 (Cyt P450) and inhibits its expression. Thus, our finding suggests carvacrol can be used as an adjuvant for the amelioration of alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity.

Garlic augments the functional and nutritional behavior of Doenjang, a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste.

Three different forms of garlic, namely, fresh garlic (2%, 6%, 10%), heat-dried (1%, 2%, 3%) and freeze-dried (1%, 2%, 3%), were supplemented in soybean paste to prepare Doenjang and further evaluated for functional, nutritional and safety aspects. Results showed a considerable antioxidant and anti-proliferative activity of garlic-supplemented Doenjang. As a measure of nutritive value, a high amount of total free amino acids, 4,290.73 mg/100 g-5,492.94 mg/100 g, was observed in prepared Doenjang. Among all preparations, 3% freeze-dried garlic-supplemented Doenjang proved the most effective against gastric adenocarcinoma and lung adenocarcinoma with 50% inhibition concentration of 7.66 ± 0.53 mg/mL and 7.82 ± 0.34 mg/mL, respectively. However 10% fresh-garlicsupplemented Doenjang (GGD-10) showed better activity against colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29) cell line. Furthermore, GGD-10 effectively reduced colony formation and altered mitochondrial membrane potential of HT29 cells. Absence of pathogenic bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella species and Bacillus cereus) and aflatoxin was observed in Doenjang samples. In addition, nontoxic amount of anti-nutritional biogenic amines was observed in all the samples. The results collectively suggest that the addition of garlic in Doenjang can improve its nutritional and functional value, resulting in the protection of consumers from protein deficiencies and various stress conditions.

Developments of Cyanobacteria for Nano-Marine Drugs: Relevance of Nanoformulations in Cancer Therapies.

Current trends in the application of nanomaterials are emerging in the nano-biotechnological sector for development of medicines. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are photosynthetic prokaryotes that have applications to human health and numerous biological activities as dietary supplements. Cyanobacteria produce biologically active and chemically diverse compounds such as cyclic peptides, lipopeptides, fatty acid amides, alkaloids, and saccharides. More than 50% of marine cyanobacteria are potentially exploitable for the extraction of bioactive substances, which are effective in killing cancer cells by inducing apoptotic death. The current review emphasizes that not even 10% of microalgal bioactive components have reached commercialized platforms due to difficulties related to solubility. Considering these factors, they should be considered as a potential source of natural products for drug discovery and drug delivery approaches. Nanoformulations employing a wide variety of nanoparticles and their polymerized forms could be an emerging approach to the development of new cancer drugs. This review highlights recent research on microalgae-based medicines or compounds as well as their biomedical applications. This review further discusses the facts, limitations, and commercial market trends related to the use of microalgae for industrial and medicinal purposes.

Detection of biogenic amines and microbial safety assessment of novel Meju fermented with addition of Nelumbo nucifera, Ginkgo biloba, and Allium sativum.

Meju, a cooked and fermented soy bean based food product, is used as a major ingredient in Korean traditional fermented foods such as Doenjang. We developed a novel type of Meju using single and combined extracts of Allium sativum (garlic clove), Nelumbo nucifera (lotus leaves), and Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo leaves) at 1% and 10% concentrations to improve the safety of Meju-based fermented products. Biogenic amines (BAs) in protein-rich fermented food products pose considerable toxical risks. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of adding selected plant extracts in Meju samples during fermentation. Nine BAs, including tryptamine, 2-phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, agmatine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine and spermine, were isolated from Meju samples after sample derivatization with dansyl chloride and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. As a result, all tested Meju samples with added plant extracts showed total BAs levels in the range of 20.12 ±â€¯2.03 to 118.42 ±â€¯10.68 mg/100 g, which were below the safety limit set by various regulatory authorities (USFDA/KFDA/EFSA). However, among all tested Meju samples, LOM10 (Meju fermented with Nelumbo nucifera at 10% concentration) showed higher levels of BAs content than others either due to batch-to-batch variability or reduced beneficial microorganisms and/or due to increase in BA forming microorganisms. Also, none of the samples showed the aflatoxin level above the detection limit. Furthermore, all the tested Meju samples improved microbial safety as confirmed by the complete absence of Salmonella species and Staphylococcus aureus. However, some of the Meju samples showed the presence of coliforms (in range of 1.6 × 100-1.1 × 103 CFU/g), which is under regulatory limits. These results suggested that the use of plant extracts in Meju during fermentation have potential to improve microbial and toxicological safety of Meju products.

Development of novel Meju starter culture using plant extracts with reduced Bacillus cereus counts and enhanced functional properties.

We developed a novel type of Meju starter culture using single and combined extracts of Allium sativum (garlic clove), Nelumbo nucifera (lotus leaves), and Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo leaves) to improve the quality and functionality of Meju-based fermented products. Meju samples fermented with plant extracts (10 mg/ml) showed phenolic contents of 11.4-31.6 mg/g (gallic acid equivalents). Samples of extracts (garlic clove, lotus leaves, ginkgo leaves and their combination) fermented with Meju strongly inhibited tyrosinase, α-glucosidase, and elastase activities by 36.43-64.34%, 45.08-48.02%, and 4.52-10.90%, respectively. Specifically, ginkgo leaves extract added to fermented Meju samples at different concentrations (1% and 10%) strongly inhibited tyrosinase, α-glucosidase, and elastase activities and exhibited a potent antibacterial effect against Bacillus cereus with a significant reduction in bacterial counts compared with the effects observed for garlic clove and lotus leaf added to Meju samples. Scanning electron microscopy revealed severe morphological alterations of the B. cereus cell wall in response to ginkgo leaf extracts. Gas chromatographic mass spectroscopic analysis of plant extract-supplemented Meju samples and control Meju samples identified 113 bioactive compounds representing 98.44-99.98% total extract. The proposed approach may be useful for the development of various fermented functional foods at traditional and commercial levels.

Evaluation of antiproliferative and hepatoprotective effects of wheat grass (Triticum aestivum).

This study was aimed to evaluate the pharmacological potential of various extracts (hexane, chloroform, methanol and aqueous) of dried shoots of Triticum aestivum (wheat grass) in terms of antiproliferative and hepatoprotective potential of T. aestivum. The total chlorophyll content in dried shoots of T. aestivum was 0.54 ± 0.016 g/L (chlorophyll-a: 0.288 ± 0.05 g/L; and chlorophyll-b; 0.305 ± 0.05 g/L), while total carotene content was 0.42 ± 0.066 g/L. In addition, the chloroform extract of dried shoots of T. aestivum (250 µg/mL) exhibited 87.23% inhibitory effect with potent cytotoxicity against human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cancer cell line. Moreover, chloroform and methanol extracts significantly reduced the levels of SGOT, and SGPT enzymes, as well as total bilirubin content, while raised the level of total protein in a concentration-gradient manner, confirming the potent hepatoprotective effect of T. aestivum. A possible mechanism of apoptosis of the chloroform extract of dried shoots of T. aestivum in terms of its potent antiproliferative activity against HepG2 cancer cell line can also be proposed in this study. Our findings clearly demonstrate that T. aestivum has a significant pharmacological potential that night be used for antiproliferative and hepatoprotective purposes.

Phytochemical analysis and estimation of major bioactive compounds from Triticum aestivum L. grass with antimicrobial potential.

The aim of the present study was to investigate phytochemical analysis, and qualitative and quantitative determination of major bioactive compound present in various organic extracts of T. aestivum L. grass. Soxhlet apparatus was used for the extraction purpose using hexane, chloroform, methanol and distilled water as a solvent system. All the extracts derived from T. aestivum showed qualitative presence of major phytochemicals including alkaloids, steroids and cardiac glycosides tannins, flavonoids carbohydrates. Further, HPLC analysis revealed the presence of major bioactive compounds such as rutin, chlorogenic acid, tocopherol, chlorogenic acid, and gallic acid in various organic extracts responsible for the reported maximum antimicrobial activity of T. aestivum grass against pathogenic bacteria including Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholerae. These findings confirm that T. aestivum grass containing medicinally important bioactive compounds may have significant potential to be used in traditional medicine system for the treatment of various diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

In vivo anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities of a medicinal plant, Caesalpinia bonducella F.

This research examined antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities of ethanolic extract of C. bonducella whole seeds in experimental albino rats. Three doses, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg of the whole seed ethanolic extract prepared as a suspension in 2 ml of 2% gum acacia were used. Acute inflammatory and antipyretic activities were evaluated in experimental animals by carrageenan induced paw edema and brewer's yeast-induced pyrexia models, respectively. A significant (p<0.05) reduction in paw volumes, and pyrexia was noted in experimental animals when compared with control animals. The ethanol see extract (400 mg/kg) displayed in vivo anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic in terms of reduction in paw edema, % writhes inhibition and rectal temperature by (0.24±0.03), (31.38%) and (36.2±0.1), respectively. Overall the whole ethanolic seed extract at all tested concentrations produced significant (p<0.05) anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic activities. The results obtained in this study clearly indicated the ethno-medicinal potential of C. bonducella in curing pain and inflammation related disorders, supporting its efficacy as a natural analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory agent.

Anti-angiogenic effect of Nelumbo nucifera leaf extracts in human umbilical vein endothelial cells with antioxidant potential.

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn (Nymphaeaceae) has long been used as a traditional herb in Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Korean medicinal practices since prehistoric times and flourishes today as the primary form of medicine. This study reports for the first time the potent ability of N. nucifera leaf extracts to inhibit vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo, as well as their antioxidant efficacy in various scavenging models and an analysis of their chemical composition. In vivo anti-angiogenic activity was evaluated in a chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model using fertilized chicken eggs, in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by using cell viability, cell proliferation and tube formation assays, and by determining intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vitro. The antioxidant efficacy of N. nucifera leaf extracts was determined in various scavenging models, including total phenolic and flavonoid content. The chemical composition of N. nucifera leaf extracts was determined by GC-MS analysis, which revealed the presence of different phytochemicals. The IC50 values for the DPPH radical scavenging activities of water and methanol extracts were found to be 1699.47 and 514.36 µg ml(-1), and their total phenolic and flavonoid contents were 85.01 ± 2.32 and 147.63 ± 2.23 mg GAE g dry mass(-1) and 35.38 ± 1.32 and 41.86 ± 1.07 mg QA g dry mass(-1), respectively. N. nucifera leaf extracts (10-100 µg ml(-1)) exhibited significant dose-dependent inhibition of VEGF-induced angiogenesis, as well as VEGF-induced proliferation and tube formation in HUVECs. In this study, N. nucifera leaf extracts displayed potent antioxidant and inhibitory effects on VEGF-induced angiogenesis. N. nucifera exerted an inhibitory effect on VEGF-induced proliferation and tube formation, as well as CAM angiogenesis in vivo. Moreover, N. nucifera leaf extracts significantly blocked VEGF-induced ROS production in HUVECs, confirming their possible anti-angiogenic mechanism.

Antibacterial effect of butyryl alkannin from Arnebia euchroma against vancomycin-resistant pathogens of Enterococcus faecalis causing urinary tract infections.

This study was carried out to investigate the biomedicinal potential of a bioactive marker component, butyryl alkannin, isolated from n-hexane root extract of Arnebia euchroma against various vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) isolates of Enterococcus faecalis causing urinary tract infections. As a result, butyryl alkannin showed significant antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant E. faecalis pathogens of VRE as minimum inhibitory concentration values which were found in the range of 3.13 to 6.26 µg ml(-1). The findings of this study justify biological and biomedicinal potential of butyryl alkannin compound as confirmed by its higher and significant antibacterial efficacy against VRE isolates of E. faecalis as compared to standard antibiotic vancomycin.

Antioxidant ability and total phenolic content of aqueous leaf extract of Stevia rebaudiana Bert.

In the present study, we carried out a systematic research on relative antioxidant activity of aqueous leaf extract of Stevia rebaudiana. The DPPH activity of aqueous leaf extract (20, 40, 50, 100 and 200 µg/ml) was increased in a dose dependent manner, which was found in the range of 40.00-72.37% as compared to ascorbic acid 64.26-82.58%. The IC(50) values of aqueous extract and ascorbic acid in DPPH radical scavenging assay were obtained to be 83.45 and 26.75 µg/ml, respectively. Measurement of total phenolic content of the aqueous leaf extract of S. rebaudiana was achieved using Folin-Ciocalteau reagent containing 56.73 mg/g of phenolic content, which was found significantly potent when compared to reference standard gallic acid. The aqueous extract also inhibited the hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide and superoxide anions with IC(50) values of 100.86, 98.73 and 100.86 µg/ml, respectively. The greater amount of phenolic compounds leads to more potent radical scavenging effects as shown by the aqueous leaf extract of S. rebaudiana.

In vivo immunomodulatory activities of the aqueous extract of bonduc nut Caesalpinia bonducella seeds.

This study evaluated the in vivo immunomodulatory activities of the aqueous extract of Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming (Caesalpiniaceae) seeds. C. bonducella is a plant widely used in the traditional medicinal systems of India. In the present investigation, the aqueous extract of C. bonducella seeds was tested for its effect on cell mediated and humoral components of the immune system in rats. Administration of C. bonducella seed extract produced an increase of 93.03 +/- 4 mean hemagglutinating antibody (HA) titer and a change of 0.56 +/- 0.058 mm in delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) as compared to control at a dose of 400 mg/kg body weight. Thus, the results of this study indicate that C. bonducella extract could be a promising immunostimulatory agent.

Determination of non-volatile and volatile organic acids in Korean traditional fermented soybean paste (Doenjang).

Organic acids are formed in food as a result of metabolism of large molecular mass compounds. These organic acids play an important role in the taste and aroma of fermented food products. Doenjang is a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste product that provides a major source of protein. The quantitative data for volatile and non-volatile organic acid contents of 18 samples of Doenjang were determined by comparing the abundances of each peak by gas (GC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The mean values of volatile organic acids (acetic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid and 3-methyl butanoic acid), determined in 18 Doenjang samples, were found to be 91.73, 29.54, 70.07 and 19.80 mg%, respectively, whereas the mean values of non-volatile organic acids, such as oxalic acid, citric acid, lactic acid and succinic acid, were noted to be 14.69, 5.56, 9.95 and 0.21 mg%, respectively. Malonic and glutaric acids were absent in all the tested samples of Doenjang. The findings of this study suggest that determination of organic acid contents by GC and HPLC can be considered as an affective approach to evaluate the quality characteristics of fermented food products.