CP12: a small nuclear-encoded chloroplast protein provides novel insights into higher-plant GAPDH evolution.

Higher-plant chloroplast NAD(P)-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (NAD(P)-GAPDH; EC 1.2.1.13) is composed of two different nuclear-encoded subunits, GAPA and GAPB, forming the highly active heterotetrameric A2B2 enzyme. The main difference between these two subunits is a C-terminal extension of about 30 amino acid residues of GAPB. We present cDNA clones for a nuclear-encoded chloroplast protein from pea, spinach and tobacco, which we have named CP12. The mature protein consists of only 74, 75 and 76 amino acid residues, respectively and contains two domains with significant homology to the C-terminal extension of GAPB. Affinity chromatography approaches reveal also a specific interaction between CP12 and chloroplast GAPDH. Northern blot analysis indicates that CP12 is, like plastid GAPDH, expressed in green and also in etiolated leaves. Further homology is observed between CP12 and ORF3, an open reading frame located in the hox gene cluster of Anabaena variabilis. This gene cluster encodes the subunits of the bidirectional NADP(+)-dependent [NiFeS] dehydrogenase. We propose therefore a common evolutionary origin of CP12 and higher-plant chloroplast GAPDH subunit GAPB from the cyanobacterial ORF3.

Phosphorylation of the transit sequence of chloroplast precursor proteins.

A protein kinase was located in the cytosol of pea mesophyll cells. The protein kinase phosphorylates, in an ATP-dependent manner, chloroplast-destined precursor proteins but not precursor proteins, which are located to plant mitochondria or plant peroxisomes. The phosphorylation occurs on either serine or threonine residues, depending on the precursor protein used. We demonstrate the specific phosphorylation of the precursor forms of the chloroplast stroma proteins ferredoxin (preFd), small subunit of ribulose-bisphosphate-carboxylase (preSSU), the thylakoid localized light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding protein (preLHCP), and the thylakoid lumen-localized proteins of the oxygen-evolving complex of 23 kDa (preOE23) and 33 kDa (preOE33). In the case of thylakoid lumen proteins which possess bipartite transit sequences, the phosphorylation occurs within the stroma-targeting domain. By using single amino acid substitution within the presequences of preSSU, preOE23, and preOE33, we were able to tentatively identify a consensus motif for the precursor protein protein kinase. This motif is (P/G)X(n)(R/K)X(n)(S/T)X(n) (S*/T*), were n = 0-3 amino acids spacer and S*/T* represents the phosphate acceptor. The precursor protein protein kinase is present only in plant extracts, e.g. wheat germ and pea, but not in a reticulocyte lysate. Protein import experiments into chloroplasts revealed that phosphorylated preSSU binds to the organelles, but dephosphorylation seems required to complete the translocation process and to obtain complete import. These results suggest that a precursor protein protein phosphatase is involved in chloroplast import and represents a so far unidentified component of the import machinery. In contrast to sucrose synthase, a cytosolic marker protein, the precursor protein protein kinase seems to adhere partially to the chloroplast surface. A phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle of chloroplast-destined precursor proteins might represent one step, which could lead to a specific sorting and productive translocation in plant cells.

Identification, characterization, and DNA sequence of a functional "double" groES-like chaperonin from chloroplasts of higher plants.

Chloroplasts of higher plants contain a nuclear-encoded protein that is a functional homolog of the Escherichia coli chaperonin 10 (cpn10; also known as groES). In pea (Pisum sativum), chloroplast cpn10 was identified by its ability to (i) assist bacterial chaperonin 60 (cpn60; also known as groEL) in the ATP-dependent refolding of chemically denatured ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase and (ii) form a stable complex with bacterial cpn60 in the presence of Mg.ATP. The subunit size of the pea protein is approximately 24 kDa--about twice the size of bacterial cpn10. A cDNA encoding a spinach (Spinacea oleracea) chloroplast cpn10 was isolated, sequenced, and expressed in vitro. The spinach protein is synthesized as a higher molecular mass precursor and has a typical chloroplast transit peptide. Surprisingly, however, attached to the transit peptide is a single protein, comprised of two distinct cpn10 molecules in tandem. Moreover, both halves of this "double" cpn10 are highly conserved at a number of residues that are present in all cpn10s that have been examined. Upon import into chloroplasts the spinach cpn10 precursor is processed to its mature form of approximately 24 kDa. N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis reveals that the mature pea and spinach cpn10 are identical at 13 of 21 residues.

Transfer of a chloroplast-bound precursor protein into the translocation apparatus is impaired after phospholipase C treatment.

We have studied the influence of phospholipase C treatment of intact purified chloroplast on the translocation of a plastid destined precursor protein. Under standard import conditions, i.e. in the light in the presence of 2 mM ATP translocation was completely abolished but binding was observed at slightly elevated levels. An experimental regime which allowed binding but not import of the precursor protein, i.e. in the dark in the presence of 10 microM ATP, demonstrated that translocation intermediates, normally detected at this stage, were missing in phospholipase treated chloroplasts. The precursor was completely sensitive to protease treatment, indicating that the transfer of the precursor from the receptor to the import apparatus was blocked by phospholipase treatment.

Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNAs encoding the cytosolic precursors of subunits GapA and GapB of chloroplast glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from pea and spinach.

Chloroplast glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is composed of two different subunits, GapA and GapB. cDNA clones containing the entire coding sequences of the cytosolic precursors for GapA from pea and for GapB from pea and spinach have been identified, sequenced and the derived amino acid sequences have been compared to the corresponding sequences from tobacco, maize and mustard. These comparisons show that GapB differs from GapA in about 20% of its amino acid residues and by the presence of a flexible and negatively charged C-terminal extension, possibly responsible for the observed association of the enzyme with chloroplast envelopes in vitro. This C-terminal extension (29 or 30 residues) may be susceptible to proteolytic cleavage thereby leading to a conversion of chloroplast GAPDH isoenzyme I into isoenzyme II. Evolutionary rate comparisons at the amino acid sequence level show that chloroplast GapA and GapB evolve roughly two-fold slower than their cytosolic counterpart GapC. GapA and GapB transit peptides evolve about 10 times faster than the corresponding mature subunits. They are relatively long (68 and 83 residues for pea GapA and spinach GapB respectively) and share a similar amino acid framework with other chloroplast transit peptides.

Localization of a 64-kDa phosphoprotein in the lumen between the outer and inner envelopes of pea chloroplasts.

The identification and localization of a marker protein for the intermembrane space between the outer and inner chloroplast envelopes is described. This 64-kDa protein is very rapidly labeled by [gamma-32P]ATP at very low (30 nM) ATP concentrations and the phosphoryl group exhibits a high turnover rate. It was possible to establish the presence of the 64-kDa protein in this plastid compartment by using different chloroplast envelope separation and isolation techniques. In addition comparison of labeling kinetics by intact and hypotonically lysed pea chloroplasts support the localization of the 64-kDa protein in the intermembrane space. The 64-kDa protein was present and could be labeled in mixed envelope membranes isolated from hypotonically lysed plastids. Mixed envelope membranes incorporated high amounts of 32P from [gamma-32P]ATP into the 64-kDa protein, whereas separated outer and inner envelope membranes did not show significant phosphorylation of this protein. Water/Triton X-114 phase partitioning demonstrated that the 64-kDa protein is a hydrophilic polypeptide. These findings suggest that the 64-kDa protein is a soluble protein trapped in the space between the inner and outer envelope membranes. After sonication of mixed envelope membranes, the 64-kDa protein was no longer present in the membrane fraction, but could be found in the supernatant after a 110,000 x g centrifugation.

Protein transport in intact, purified pea etioplasts.

We have developed a method to isolate intact, purified pea etioplasts. These etioplasts were capable of recognizing, transporting, and processing the precursor form of the small subunit of the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, a protein which is not detectable at this developmental stage. Transport of proteins was completely dependent on ATP and could not be substituted for or stimulated by light. The transported precursor protein was processed to its proper molecular weight. The mature form of the small subunit was assembled with the large subunit of the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase already present at this stage to form an oligomer. Protein transport was completely abolished using the phosphatase inhibitor sodium fluoride. This is the first time protein transport has been demonstrated in isolated, purified etioplasts.