Placing the US Federal Investment in Religion, Spirituality, and Health Research in Context: A Systematic Review and Comparison with Social Support and Optimism Funding Levels.

Religion and spirituality (R/S) have been linked to better physical and mental health. The US government has funded several research studies that include a focus on R/S but the amount of support over the last several years appears to be declining. To better understand these funding trends for R/S and health research, we chose relevant comparisons from projects that include a focus on social support and optimism. We identified total amount of funding, change in funding patterns over time, and characteristics of funded projects from a large database of US research projects (Federal RePORTER). We reviewed 5093 projects for social support and 6030 projects for optimism before narrowing the number of eligible studies to 170 and 13, respectively. Social support projects received the largest investment of $205 million dollars. Funded awards for social support and optimism remained stable over time while R/S decreased (p = 0.01), intervention research was more characteristic and studies of African-American/Black participants were less characteristic of funded projects in social support than of R/S (ps < 0.001). Future research for R/S and health would likely benefit from continued focus on minority communities and on identifying and developing appropriate interventions to support individual and community health and well-being.

Unveiling Adolescent Suicidality: Holistic Analysis of Protective and Risk Factors Using Multiple Machine Learning Algorithms.

Adolescent suicide attempts are on the rise, presenting a significant public health concern. Recent research aimed at improving risk assessment for adolescent suicide attempts has turned to machine learning. But no studies to date have examined the performance of stacked ensemble algorithms, which are more suitable for low-prevalence conditions. The existing machine learning-based research also lacks population-representative samples, overlooks protective factors and their interplay with risk factors, and neglects established theories on suicidal behavior in favor of purely algorithmic risk estimation. The present study overcomes these shortcomings by comparing the performance of a stacked ensemble algorithm with a diverse set of algorithms, performing a holistic item analysis to identify both risk and protective factors on a comprehensive data, and addressing the compatibility of these factors with two competing theories of suicide, namely, The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide and The Strain Theory of Suicide. A population-representative dataset of 173,664 Norwegian adolescents aged 13 to 18 years (mean = 15.14, SD = 1.58, 50.5% female) with a 4.65% rate of reported suicide attempt during the past 12 months was analyzed. Five machine learning algorithms were trained for suicide attempt risk assessment. The stacked ensemble model significantly outperformed other algorithms, achieving equal sensitivity and a specificity of 90.1%, AUC of 96.4%, and AUCPR of 67.5%. All algorithms found recent self-harm to be the most important indicator of adolescent suicide attempt. Exploratory factor analysis suggested five additional risk domains, which we labeled internalizing problems, sleep disturbance, disordered eating, lack of optimism regarding future education and career, and victimization. The identified factors provided stronger support for The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide than for The Strain Theory of Suicide. An enhancement to The Interpersonal Theory based on the risk and protective factors identified by holistic item analysis is presented.

The effect of induced optimism on early pain processing: indication by contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) and the sympathetic skin response (SSR).

Situationally induced optimism has been shown to influence several components of experimental pain. The aim of the present study was to enlarge these findings for the first time to the earliest components of the pain response by measuring contact heat evoked potentials (CHEPs) and the sympathetic skin response (SSR). Forty-seven healthy participants underwent two blocks of phasic thermal stimulation. CHEPs, the SSR and self-report pain ratings were recorded. Between the blocks of stimulation, the 'Best Possible Self' imagery and writing task was performed to induce situational optimism. The optimism manipulation was successful in increasing state optimism. It did, however, neither affect pain-evoked potentials nor the SSR nor self-report pain ratings. These results suggest that optimism does not alter early responses to pain. The higher-level cognitive processes involved in optimistic thinking might only act on later stages of pain processing. Therefore, more research is needed targeting different time frames of stimulus processing and response measures for early and late pain processing in parallel.

Influence of Optimism, Social Support, and Spirituality on COVID-19 Stress in Christian Church Community.

OBJECTIVE: Optimism, social support, and spirituality can be important factors related to coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) stress. However, studies investigating the influence and interplay of optimism, social support, and spirituality on COVID-19 simultaneously are still few. This study is aimed to explore the influence of optimism, social support, and spirituality on COVID-19 stress in the Christian church community. METHODS: A total 350 participants were included in this study. This study was cross-sectionally conducted by using an online survey on optimism, social support, spirituality, and COVID-19 stress that were measured by the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support Scale (MSPSS), Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS), and COVID-19 Stress Scale for Korean People (CSSK). The prediction models for COVID-19 stress were analyzed by using univariate and multiple linear regression. RESULTS: Based on the results of univariate linear regression, subjective feelings on income (p<0.001) and health status (p<0.001), LOTR (p<0.001), MSPSS (p=0.025), and SWBS (p<0.001) scores were significantly associated with COVID-19 stress. The multiple linear regression model with subjective feelings on income and health status and SWSB score was significant (p<0.001) and explained 17.7% of the variance (R2=0.177). CONCLUSION: This study showed that subjective feeling on low income, those who had poor health status, lower optimism, lower perceived social support, and lower spirituality were significantly affected with COVID-19 stress. Especially, the model with subjective feelings on income and health status, and spirituality showed highly significant effects, despite the interaction with associated factors. To cope with unpredictable stressful situations like the COVID-19 pandemic, integrated interventions on psycho-socio-spiritual aspect are warranted.

The effectiveness and equivalence of different versions of a brief online Best Possible Self (BPS) manipulation to temporary increase optimism and affect.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The Best Possible Self (BPS) has been found to be an effective manipulation to temporarily improve optimism and affect. The BPS has been used in different formats. In some versions, participants just write about their best possible future, while in others this is combined with imagery. An imagery only version has not been tested yet. The aim of the current study was to examine the effectiveness of three different versions of the BPS and their equivalence in improving optimism and affect. METHODS: In an online study format, participants (N = 141) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (1) writing and imagery BPS; (2) writing BPS; (3) imagery BPS; and (4) a typical day (TD) control condition. RESULTS: Results showed that each BPS condition significantly improved optimism (i.e. increased positive future expectancies and decreased negative future expectancies) and affect (i.e. increased positive affect and decreased negative affect). Equivalence testing showed that all online BPS conditions were equivalent in increasing optimism and affect, thereby confirming that both the writing and imagery elements of the BPS can independently from each other increase optimism and positive affect in a healthy population. LIMITATIONS: Only the immediate effects of the BPS formats on increasing optimism and affect were measured. CONCLUSIONS: The BPS manipulation can be employed in different ways for potential future exploration, depending on the research question, design and context and/or E-mental health applications for the treatment of individuals suffering from psychological complaints.

Future self-imagery of young people in Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic: an exploratory mixed methods analysis.

Global restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic significantly limited the capacity to plan for the future. Little is known about young people's future self-images and the impact the COVID-19 pandemic may have had upon them. Given evidence that the ability to imagine a positive future can be protective for mental health, research into the impact of the pandemic on future self-imagery is needed. In two studies, we therefore explored the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for future self-imagery in an unselected sample of young people in Sweden, specifically: (a) how content and characteristics of future self-images changed from before to during the pandemic, and (b) how such change was related to trauma history, intrusive memories of COVID-19 media footage, past time perspective and optimism (assessed with questionnaires/intrusive memory diary). Future self-images before and during the pandemic were assessed using the 'I Will Be' task (N Study1=74; N Study2=99). A mixed methods design, combining quantitative analysis, qualitative content coding and thematic analysis was used. Exploratory results of Study 1 indicated that future images were rated as less positive during than before the pandemic and that this reduction was less pronounced in people with higher optimism. Results were replicated in an independent sample (Study 2, collected later during the pandemic). In conclusion, whilst the findings are preliminary and emerged from an unselected sample, they prompt the suggestion that brief, novel interventions which aim to bolster positive future imagery may hold promise as a scalable means by which to enhance mental health for young people in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-04100-z.

Success4life Youth Empowerment for Promoting Well-being and Boosting Mental Health: Protocol for an Experimental Study.

BACKGROUND: There is an increasingly alarming worsening of mental health among the youth. There remain significant unmet needs for developing innovative, evidence-based technology-enhanced, positive psychology interventions (PPIs) all-inclusive in targeting psychological distress and risk factors related to high-risk behavior commonly encountered in adolescents. OBJECTIVE: We aim to assess the effectiveness of a hybrid (incorporating both synchronous and asynchronous learning) and holistic (targeting social and emotional learning and tackling risk factors unique for this age group) PPI, "success4life youth empowerment," in improving well-being in the youth. METHODS: Students' well-being will be assessed by the 5-item World Health Organization Well-Being Index, and hope will be assessed by the 6-item Children's Hope Scale at week 0, week 8, and week 10, month 6, and month 12. Any improvement in well-being and hope will be measured, estimating the difference in postintervention (week 8 and week 10) and preintervention (week 0) scores by determining the P value and effect size using appropriate statistical tests. RESULTS: This study includes 2 phases: pilot phase 1, delivered by the creators of the succcess4life youth empowerment modules and platform, and phase 2, which will consist of the estimation of scalability through the recruitment of trainers. We hope to start student recruitment by 2022 and aim to complete the results for phase 1 pilot testing by 2023. CONCLUSIONS: We anticipate that a primarily web-based, 10-week holistic PPI can support improvement in the mental wellness of the youth and has the potential for effective scalability. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/38463.

Antecedents and Consequences of Grit Among Working Adults: A Transpersonal Psychology Perspective.

Positive psychology has paved the way for newer and more informed ideas of living a meaningful, integrated and well-rounded quality of living. The current era of the pandemic has also moulded the ways in which individuals perceive their quality of life and how they want to integrate a holistic approach towards their well-being. The workplace settings have seen tremendous changes in terms of how employers, employees and the organisations at large function and operate. The pre-pandemic concept of success has shifted its focus from hard work to developing grit among employees to increase the overall efficiency of the organisations. Grit has revolutionised the conventional standards of success, meaning in life and has impacted personal as well as occupational welfare. This integration of positive psychology and transpersonal psychology has catalysed the purpose for the current study. To help organisations and individuals thrive in their professional endeavours at the workplace and to provide them with relevant psychological tools to enhance their occupational growth, the present study has been conducted empirically to investigate the antecedents and consequences of grit among 209 working professionals in India. The results of this study indicate that the transpersonal capital of metacognition, flow, optimism and empathy have a significant role to play in developing grit among the participants. The findings have implications for enhancing job satisfaction and job performance of participants. The current research also provides a framework to organisations towards designing interventions for improving efficiency at the workplace.

Profiles of Risk and Resilience in Chronic Pain: Loneliness, Social Support, Mindfulness, and Optimism Coming out of the First Pandemic Year.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals experience chronic pain differently, not only because of different clinical diagnoses, but also because of differing degrees of influence from biopsychosocial pain modulators. We aimed to cluster patients with chronic pain into distinct subgroups based on psychosocial characteristics and pain intensity, and we subsequently examined group differences in pain-related interference approximately 1 year later. METHODS: In this observational, longitudinal study, patients with chronic pain (n = 94) completed validated assessments of psychosocial characteristics and pain intensity at the beginning of COVID-19-related social distancing (April to June 2020). One year later (May to June 2021), patients completed a follow-up survey with assessments of pain interference, loneliness, social support, mindfulness, and optimism. RESULTS: A cluster analysis, using psychosocial factors and pain intensity, empirically produced three patient groups: 1) psychosocial predominant (PSP), characterized by high psychosocial distress and average pain intensity; 2) pain intensity predominant (PIP), characterized by average psychosocial distress and high pain intensity; and 3) less elevated symptoms (LES), characterized by low psychosocial distress and low pain intensity. At the 1-year follow-up, patients in the PSP and PIP clusters suffered greater pain interference than patients in the LES cluster, while patients in the PSP cluster also reported greater loneliness and lower mindfulness and optimism. CONCLUSIONS: An empirical psychosocial-based clustering of patients identified three distinct groups that differed in pain interference. Patients with high psychosocial modulation of pain at the onset of social distancing (the PSP cluster) suffered not only greater pain interference but also greater loneliness and lower levels of mindfulness and optimism, which suggests some potential behavioral targets for this group in the future.

Positive personal resources and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: resilience, optimism, hope, courage, trait mindfulness, and self-efficacy in breast cancer patients and survivors.

PURPOSE: This study aims to understand the association between positive personal resources (i.e., optimism, hope, courage, trait mindfulness, and self-efficacy), resilience, and psychological distress (i.e., anxiety, depression, stress) in women with breast cancer and breast cancer survivors during the COVID-19 pandemic. We hypothesized that personal positive resources can directly influence resilience, which in turn prevented psychological distress. METHODS: The research sample consisted of 409 Italian women (49% patients, 51% survivors) who were administered a questionnaire to assess positive resources, resiliency, and distress. structural equation model (SEM) analysis was carried out to confirm the hypothetical-theoretical model. RESULTS: Personal positive resources had a direct positive effect on resilience, which prevented from distress. These results were observed across cancer patients and survivors, and regardless the level of direct exposure to COVID-19. CONCLUSIONS: In both patients and survivors, the relationships between positive personal resources, resilience, and psychological distress is strong enough to be not influenced by the level of exposure to COVID-19 and despite COVID-19 pandemic caused the disruption of active treatment plans and delays in routine check-ups. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: Implications of this study suggest the urgency to screen positive resources and to identify women with lower resilience and a potentially higher susceptibility to develop psychological distress. For these women, our findings suggest the implementation of psychological interventions that build resilience.

Psychometric Testing of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) Among Black Gay, Bisexual, and Other Sexual Minority Men (SMM) and Black Transwomen in the Deep South: The MARI Study.

Spirituality is a well-established protective psychosocial determinant of health. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) among Black gay, bisexual and other sexual minority men (SMM) and Black transwomen (TW) in the Deep South. Data were collected via self-interview technology and analyzed using factor analyses and correlation coefficients. We demonstrated a single-factor structure of the DSES with high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.96). DSES was positively and significantly associated with multiple dimensions of religion, resilience, optimism and social support and not significantly associated with cynicism and anger expressions. Spirituality should be included in HIV prevention, treatment and care strategies focused on Black SMM and Black TW, especially those residing in the Deep South, USA.

The association of loneliness, mindfulness, and optimism with self-directed learning among nursing students in China: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Successful adaption to the increasing demands of the healthcare system involves self-directed learning (SDL) approach, which contributes to professional values and academic and clinical performance. Although many factors are related to SDL, research examining the association between internal factors such as loneliness, mindfulness and optimism with self-directed learning is limited. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to examine the association between loneliness, mindfulness, and optimism with self-directed learning. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was conducted, and study participants included 568 nursing students from higher education institutes in North, East and South China from May 2020 to October 2020. Data collection instruments included socio-demographics, the self-directed learning scale, the loneliness scale, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, and the Life Orientation Test. Hierarchical multiple regression and moderation analyses were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Findings indicated that loneliness was negatively related to SDL, whereas mindfulness and optimism showed a positive relationship to SDL. Optimism did not significantly moderate the relationship between loneliness and SDL, and between optimism and self-directed learning. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that incorporating training programs for reducing loneliness and improving mindfulness and optimism into curricular and extracurricular activities on campuses may help increase SDL.

Religious and Spiritual Practices: Association with Dispositional Optimism in an Underprivileged Population in Lascano, Uruguay.

Optimism seems to foster the ability to manage adverse situations better-a finding especially relevant for disadvantaged populations. Employing a unique sample from a small underprivileged village, we studied the association between religious/spiritual practices and dispositional optimism. The village belongs to a developing country that is, by far, the most secular country in Latin America; this makes it particularly interesting for exploring the role of religious/spiritual practices in this context. We found that these practices were positively associated with higher optimism, measured by the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R): those who practice spirituality, score, on average, 14.4 percentage points higher on the LOT-R than those who did not. This association seems to be especially robust in the case of the poor and less educated: those with religious/spiritual practices score 20 percentage points higher on the LOT-R. Thus, the role that these practices may play in dispositional optimism in disadvantaged populations deserves more attention.

The Influence of Religiosity and Spirituality on the Happiness, Optimism, and Pessimism of Brazilian Medical Students.

BACKGROUND: Mental health problems are very common among medical students, becoming a concern for health care professionals and educators. Despite the fact that there is a growing body of literature supporting the role of religiosity and spirituality (RS) on mental health and on positive psychology outcomes, little evidence is available among medical students, a population subjected to important distress. AIMS: This study aimed to investigate the role of RS on the levels of optimism, pessimism, and happiness among Brazilian medical students. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study including medical students from the first to the eighth semester of a private medical school. The instruments used were: TOT-R for optimism and pessimism, Lyubomirsk and Lepper subjective happiness scale, and sociodemographic profile. The independent variables were Brazilian Portuguese Duke University Religiosity Scale for religiosity, Brief Spiritual Religious Coping (SRC) for negative and positive SRC; and Facit-Sp for spiritual well-being. RESULTS: A total of 353 medical students were included (response rate 97.51%). Higher levels of intrinsic religiosity and peace were associated with greater happiness and optimism. However, negative SRC was associated with lower levels of happiness and optimism and higher levels of pessimism. CONCLUSION: Medical students tend to use their RS as a resource for dealing with the challenges of medical school, influencing their happiness and optimism. In this context, it seems that religiousness acts in two different ways, not only have positive but also negative outcomes among the participants.

Resilience and Associated Factors in Mothers of Children with Congenital Heart Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Congenital heart disease (CHD) in children affects the parents' mental and physical health and their caring and supportive functions. Resilience is an important factor in health. This study aimed to determine resilience and its associated factors in mothers of children with congenital heart disease. METHODS: This descriptive cross-sectional study enrolled 136 mothers of children with CHD. Samples were selected in two hospitals of Shahid Modarres and Children's Medical Center in Tehran, Iran, via convenience sampling from May to early October 2019. Data were collected using demographics questionnaire, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), Life Orientation Test (LOT), and Wagnild and Young Resilience Scale (RS). Data were analyzed in statistical software SPSS-16 using independent t-test, ANOVA, Pearson and Spearman correlation, and multiple linear regression. The significance level was set at P<0.05. RESULTS: Mothers' total mean score of resilience was 94.08±12.81, while 14.7%, 66.2%, and 19.1% had low, moderate, and high resilience, respectively. Regression analysis showed that two variables of social support (B=2.20, P<0.001) and optimism (B=0.76, P=0.003) were associated with resilience in mothers. The duration of the child's disease was positively correlated with the mothers' resilience but did not predict it (B=-0.72, P=0.22). CONCLUSION: The level of resilience in most mothers was moderate. Social support in the dimension of significant others and optimism were associated with mothers' resilience. Therefore, holistic care and providing educational training programs that enhance these variables could be effective in promoting resilience in mothers of children with CHD.

Optimism, mindfulness, and resilience as potential protective factors for the mental health consequences of fear of the coronavirus.

The COVID-19 pandemic has a substantial impact on mental health. Prior reports have shown that depression, anxiety, and stress have increased throughout the pandemic. Nonetheless, not everyone is affected by these negative consequences and some people may be relatively unaffected. In this online study in a predominantly Dutch and Belgian sample (N = 546), we investigated whether positive personality traits such as optimism, mindfulness, and resilience may protect against the negative mental health consequences (i.e., fear of the coronavirus, depression, stress, and anxiety) of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that fear of COVID-19 was related to higher depression, stress, and anxiety. However, for participants scoring high on mindfulness, optimism, and resilience, this relationship was weakened. In addition to these findings, we present the results of network analyses to explore the network structure between these constructs. These results help to identify possible ways through which psychological well-being can be promoted during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Assessment of Optimism in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Case Control-Study.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a chronic endocrinopathy characterized by hyperandrogenism and anovulation that may pervade psychological dimensions such as dispositional optimism. Considering how PCOS influences mental health and the lack of studies on this matter, this research was aimed at assessing optimism and associated factors in PCOS. A case-control study of 156 patients with PCOS and 117 controls was conducted. All woman filled out the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R), a self-report questionnaire for measuring dispositional optimism. Medication, pain severity, gynecological, and sociodemographic information was also collected. Lower optimism was found in patients with PCOS compared to controls, even after covariate adjustment (LOT-R global scores: 14.1 vs. 15.9, p = 0.020). Our study provides evidence that a personality characteristic with important implications in illness prognosis may be affected in PCOS. We propose to assess dispositional optimism with the LOT-R scale in the gynecological appointment and tailor medical attention accordingly as a way to improve the comprehensive care of these patients within a multidisciplinary team.

Morality justifies motivated reasoning in the folk ethics of belief.

When faced with a dilemma between believing what is supported by an impartial assessment of the evidence (e.g., that one's friend is guilty of a crime) and believing what would better fulfill a moral obligation (e.g., that the friend is innocent), people often believe in line with the latter. But is this how people think beliefs ought to be formed? We addressed this question across three studies and found that, across a diverse set of everyday situations, people treat moral considerations as legitimate grounds for believing propositions that are unsupported by objective, evidence-based reasoning. We further document two ways in which moral considerations affect how people evaluate others' beliefs. First, the moral value of a belief affects the evidential threshold required to believe, such that morally beneficial beliefs demand less evidence than morally risky beliefs. Second, people sometimes treat the moral value of a belief as an independent justification for belief, and on that basis, sometimes prescribe evidentially poor beliefs to others. Together these results show that, in the folk ethics of belief, morality can justify and demand motivated reasoning.

Optimism and social support as contributing factors to spirituality in Cancer patients.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The impact a cancer diagnosis and its treatment are affected by psychosocial factors and how these factors interrelate among themselves. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between optimism and social support in spiritual wellbeing in cancer patients initiating chemotherapy. METHODS: A cross-sectional, multi-center (15 sites), prospective study was conducted with 912 cancer patients who had undergone curative surgery for a stage I-III cancer and were to receive adjuvant chemotherapy. They completed the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness-Spiritual Well-being Scale (FACIT-Sp), Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). RESULTS: Significant differences on spirituality scales (meaning/peace and faith) were detected depending on age (≤ 65 vs > 65), sex, marital status, employment, and cancer treatment. Married or partnered participants had significantly higher meaning/peace scores compared to their non-partnered counterparts (p = 0.001). Women, > 65 years, unemployed, and patients treated with chemotherapy and radiotherapy had significantly higher faith scores versus men, ≤ 65 years, employed, and subjects only receiving adjuvant chemotherapy (all p < 0.030). Multivariate analyses indicated that meaning/peace and faith correlated positively with optimism and social support. CONCLUSION: During oncological treatment, the positive effects of optimism and social support exhibit a positive correlation with spiritual coping. A brief assessment evaluation of these factors can aid in identifying at risk for a worse adaptation to the disease.

Spirituality and subjective well-being among Ghanaian older adults: optimism and meaning in life as mediators.

OBJECTIVE: This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between spirituality and subjective well-being (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction), and whether this relationship is mediated by optimism and meaning in life. METHOD: Participants were 235 older adults (≥60 years) conveniently sampled from Ghanaian communities. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the direct and indirect relationships. Sobel test was also used to test specific mediating effects of optimism and meaning in life. RESULTS: Spirituality was positively related with positive affect and life satisfaction, but negatively related with negative affect. The SEM results revealed that the relationship between spirituality and subjective well-being was indirect. Sobel test showed that the mediating effect of optimism was only statistically significant for negative affect but not positive affect and life satisfaction. In contrast, the mediating effect of meaning in life was statistically significant for the three components of subjective well-being. CONCLUSION: The study has demonstrated that spirituality indirectly influences subjective well-being through optimism and meaning in life. It also showed the relative importance of meaning in life over optimism as a mediator. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings have been discussed.