Amelioration of nutritional properties of bakery fat using omega-3 fatty acid-rich edible oils: a review.

Bakery products have gained prominence in modern diets due to their convenience and accessibility, often serving as staple meals across diverse regions. However, the fats used in these products are rich in saturated fatty acids and often comprise trans fatty acids, which are considered as a major biomarker for non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular disorders, obesity and diabetes. Additionally, these fats lack the essential omega-3 fatty acids, which are widely known for their therapeutic benefits. They play a major role in lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. Thus, there is need for incorporating these essential fatty acids into bakery fats. Nevertheless, fortifying food products with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) poses several challenges due to their high susceptibility to oxidation. This oxidative deterioration leads to not only the formation of undesirable flavors, but also a loss of nutritional value in the final products. This review focuses on the development of healthier trans-fat-free bakery fat enriched with omega-3 fatty acids and its effect on the physicochemical, functional, sensory and nutritional properties of bakery fats and products. Further, the role of various technologies like physical blending, enzymatic interesterification and encapsulation to improve the stability of PUFA-rich bakery fat is discussed, where microencapsulation emerged as a novel and effective technology to enhance the stability and shelf life. By preventing deteriorative changes, microencapsulation ensures that the nutritional, physicochemical and sensory properties of food products remain intact. Novel modification methods like interesterification and microencapsulation used for developing PUFA-rich bakery fats have a potential to address the health risks occurring due to consumption of bakery fat having higher amount of saturated and trans fatty acids. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Associations between Fatty Acid Intakes and Plasma Phospholipid Fatty Acid Concentrations in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to determine the correlations between dietary fatty acid (FA) intakes and plasma phospholipid (PL) FA levels in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. METHODS: The dietary intake of 60 individual FAs was estimated using centre-specific validated dietary questionnaires. Plasma PL FA concentrations of these FAs were measured in non-fasting venous plasma samples in nested case-control studies within the EPIC cohort (n = 4923, using only non-cases). Spearman rank correlations were calculated to determine associations between FA intakes and plasma PL FA levels. RESULTS: Correlations between FA intakes and circulating levels were low to moderately high (-0.233 and 0.554). Moderate positive correlations were found for total long-chain n-3 poly-unsaturated FA (PUFA) (r = 0.354) with the highest (r = 0.406) for n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Moderate positive correlations were also found for the non-endogenously synthesized trans-FA (r = 0.461 for total trans-FA C16-18; r = 0.479 for industrial trans-FA (elaidic acid)). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that dietary FA intakes might influence the plasma PL FA status to a certain extent for several specific FAs. The stronger positive correlations for health-enhancing long-chain PUFAs and the health-deteriorating trans-FA that are not endogenously produced are valuable for future cancer prevention public health interventions.

Amelioration of oxidative kidney damage in offspring by maternal trans-fatty acid exposure in mice by secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. / äºšéº»æœ¨é šç´ å¯¹æ¯é¼ åå¼è„‚è‚ªé ¸æš´éœ²è‡´å­ä»£è‚¾æ°§åŒ–æŸä¼¤çš„ä¿æŠ¤ä½œç”¨.

OBJECTIVES: Trans-fatty acids (TFAs), primarily derived from the food industry's production processes, have become a globally recognized public health issue due to the detrimental impact they have on human well-being. Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) is a polyphenolic compound derived from flax lignans, possessing antioxidative properties. This study aims to investigate the protective effect of SDG on kidney oxidative damage in offspring of mice caused by maternal exposure to TFA during pregnancy and lactation. METHODS: A total of 30 c57BL/6 female rats were randomly divided into 5 groups: a control group, a TFA-exposed group, a low-(TFA+LSDG) group, a medium-(TFA+MSDG) group, and a high-(TFA+HSDG) group (n=6 in each group). With the exception of the control group, the maternal mice in the remaining 4 groups received a daily oral gavage of TFA at a dosage of 60 mg/(kg·BW) throughout the experimental period. The mothers in the control group were administered physiological saline via oral gavage once daily. Meanwhile, the 3 SDG intervention groups were provided with ad libitum access to SDG feed containing 10 mg/kg (low), 20 mg/kg (medium), and 30 mg/kg (high) of SDG. The female mice were conceived overnight. If the vaginal plug appeared in the next morning, the female mice were conceived and included in the experimental stage until the end of the 21th day lactation period. The body weight and kidney mass of offspring were recorded, and the kidney coefficient was calculated. The kidney was detected by HE staining to observe the histopathological changes, and the level of reactive oxidative species (ROS) was detected by fluorescence probe-dihydroethidium (DHE) staining; the expression levels of total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in renal homogenate were detected, and the expression of nuclear factor E2-related fator2 (Nrf2) and hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein was analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. The mRNA expressions of Nrf2 and HO-1 were detected by real-time PCR, and the protein expression of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD), Mn-superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD), glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1), Nrf2 and HO-1 were detected by Western blotting. RESULTS: Compared with the control group, the kidney coefficient in the TFA-exposed group was increased, the morphology and structure of kidney tissue was abnormal; the activity of T-SOD enzyme was decreased, and the content of MDA was increased, the level of ROS was increased; the expressions of Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD, GPx1 protein were decreased, and the mRNA and protein expressions of Nrf2 and HO-1 were decreased, there were all significant difference (all P<0.05). Compared with the TFA-exposed group, the ROS levels were reduced, and the T-SOD enzyme activity as well as the protein expression of Cu/Zn-SOD, GPx-1, Mn-SOD, Nrf2 and HO-1 were up-regulated in the low, middle and high dose SDG intervention groups; the kidney coefficient and MDA content were decreased in the middle and high dose SDG groups; the Nrf2 mRNA expression in the high dose SDG group was up-regulated, there were all significant difference (all P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Maternal exposure to TFA during pregnancy and lactation can lead to oxidative damage in the kidney of offspring, and the SDG intervention may alleviate TFA-induced oxidative damage by up-regulating the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 signal pathway.

Preparation of a novel healthy tiger nut oil-based margarine fat with low trans and saturated fatty acids.

The present study sought to develop a novel healthy margarine fat with low levels of trans and saturated fatty acids in order to promote healthier alternatives. In this work, tiger nut oil was first used as a raw material to prepare margarine fat. The effects of mass ratio, reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, and time on the interesterification reaction were investigated and optimized. The results showed that, the margarine fat with ≤40% saturated fatty acids was achieved using a 6:4 mass ratio of tiger nut oil to palm stearin. The ideal interesterification parameters were 80 °C, 0.36% (w/w) catalyst dosage, and 32 min. Compared with physical blends, the interesterified oil had lower solid fat content (3.71% at 35 °C), lower slip melting point (33.5 °C), and lower levels of tri-saturated triacylglycerols (1.27%). This investigation provides important information for the utilization of tiger nut oil in healthy margarine formulation.

Sensory Features of Partially Hydrogenated Oil and Their Connection with Melting and Crystalline Characteristics.

Although partially hydrogenated oil (PHO) provides foods with outstanding thick tastes and pronounced "creamy" flavor, the high level of artificial trans-fatty acids (TFA; about 30%) limits its usages around the world in the near future. It is necessary to produce trans-free alternatives with similar tastes to PHO. The relationship between sensory attributes and physicochemical characteristics of PHO and four typical specialty fats were therefore analyzed in the present study. PHO exhibited the highest greasiness score (8.19), accompanying by mild creaminess and aftertaste as well as a weak coolness during swallow, which were resulted from the close-packed arrangements of TFA, its cis-counterparts and other long chain fatty acids. None of artificial trans-fats, mainly anhydrous milk fat, cocoa butter, and coconut oil and its fully hydrogenated counterpart, were similar to PHO in terms of these sensory attributes. The unique fatty acid species of PHO and their arrangements contributed to the relatively smooth solid fat content profile and melting-crystallization curve, as well as forming uniform and dense ß' crystal-structures (Db=1.80). The Pearson correlation analyses relevelled that long chain fatty acids, e.g., t-C18:1 and C18:1, and melting final temperatures were generally positive correlated with greasiness, creaminess and aftertaste; whereas these indices were negatively correlated with coolness. The melting enthalpy was highly connected with coolness, which reflected the endothermic effectiveness during the melting process of fats in the mouth. These indices screened by correlation analyses that were strongly correlated with sensory attributes could provide references for producing trans-free alternatives.

Circulating trans fatty acids are associated with prostate cancer in Ghanaian and American men.

The association between fatty acids and prostate cancer remains poorly explored in African-descent populations. Here, we analyze 24 circulating fatty acids in 2934 men, including 1431 prostate cancer cases and 1503 population controls from Ghana and the United States, using CLIA-certified mass spectrometry-based assays. We investigate their associations with population groups (Ghanaian, African American, European American men), lifestyle factors, the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) genetic locus, and prostate cancer. Blood levels of circulating fatty acids vary significantly between the three population groups, particularly trans, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. FADS1/2 germline genetic variants and lifestyle factors explain some of the variation in fatty acid levels, with the FADS1/2 locus showing population-specific associations, suggesting differences in their control by germline genetic factors. All trans fatty acids, namely elaidic, palmitelaidic, and linoelaidic acids, associated with an increase in the odds of developing prostate cancer, independent of ancestry, geographic location, or potential confounders.

Trans-Hydroxy, Trans-Epoxy, and Erythro-dihydroxy Fatty Acids Increase during Deep-Frying.

Deep-frying of food is a common cooking technique causing thermal oxidation of fatty acids (FA). Here, we investigated for the first time the formation of hydroxy-, epoxy- and dihydroxy-FA derived from oleic, linoleic (LA), and α-linolenic acid (ALA) during frying. Potato chips were fried in high-oleic sunflower oil for 4 × 5 cycles on 2 days, and the oil was comprehensively analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. During frying, the E,Z-9- and E,Z-13-hydroperoxy-LA and -ALA concentrations decrease while their corresponding hydroxy-FA remain constant. The concentrations of both E,E-9-/13-hydroperoxy-LA and E,E-9-/13-hydroxy-LA increase with the frying cycles, which is also found for the concentration of trans-epoxy-FA. The increase in trans-epoxy-FA is more pronounced than that of the corresponding cis-epoxy-FA, exceeding their concentrations on the second day of frying. This selective change in the cis-/trans-epoxy-FA ratio is also observed for their hydrolysis products: concentrations of erythro-dihydroxy-FA, derived from trans-epoxy-FA, increase during frying stronger than threo-dihydroxy-FA derived from cis-epoxy-FA. Based on these data, we suggest that the ratio of E,E-/E,Z-hydroxy-FA, in combination with the cis-/trans-epoxy-FA ratio, as well as the threo-/erythro-dihydroxy-FA ratio are promising new parameters to evaluate the heating of edible oils and to characterize the status of frying oils.

Industrial and Ruminant Trans-Fatty Acids-Enriched Diets Differentially Modulate the Microbiome and Fecal Metabolites in C57BL/6 Mice.

Industrially originated trans-fatty acids (I-tFAs), such as elaidic acid (EA), and ruminant trans-fatty acids (R-tFAs), such as trans-palmitoleic acid (TPA), may have opposite effects on metabolic health. The objective was to compare the effects of consuming 2-3% I-tFA or R-tFA on the gut microbiome and fecal metabolite profile in mice after 7 and 28 days. Forty C57BL/6 mice were assigned to one of the four prepared formulations: lecithin nanovesicles, lecithin nanovesicles with EA or TPA, or water. Fecal samples and animals' weights were collected on days 0, 7, and 28. Fecal samples were used to determine gut microbiome profiles by 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolite concentrations by GC/MS. At 28 days, TPA intake decreased the abundance of Staphylococcus sp55 but increased Staphylococcus sp119. EA intake also increased the abundance of Staphylococcus sp119 but decreased Ruminococcaceae UCG-014, Lachnospiraceae, and Clostridium sensu stricto 1 at 28 days. Fecal short-chain fatty acids were increased after TPA while decreased after EA after 7 and 28 days. This study shows that TPA and EA modify the abundance of specific microbial taxa and fecal metabolite profiles in distinct ways.

C57bl/6 Mice Show Equivalent Taste Preferences toward Ruminant and Industrial Trans Fatty Acids.

Two distinct types of trans fatty acids (TFA) are found in the diet. Industrial TFA such as elaidic acid (EA) have deleterious effects on metabolic risk factors, and oppositely ruminant TFA including trans-palmitoleic acid (TPA) may have beneficial effects. The objective is to evaluate the taste preference between EA, TPA, lecithin or water. In this study, 24 female C57BL/6 mice were microchipped and placed in two separate IntelliCages®. Nano encapsulated TFA or lecithin were added to drinking water in different corners of the cage with normal diet. The study was carried out over 5 weeks, during which mice were exposed to water only (weeks 1 and 3), TFA or lecithin (week 2), and EA or TPA (weeks 4 and 5). Mice weights, corner visits, nose pokes (NP), and lick number were measured each week. The results demonstrated that mice consume more TFA, either EA or TPA, compared with lecithin. In addition, the mice licked more EA compared with TPA in one cage; conversely, in the other cage they licked more TPA compared with EA. However, when TFA positions were swapped, mice had equal licks for EA and TPA. In sum, mice preferred TFA, in equal matter compared with controls; therefore, the results demonstrate the potential for TFA-type substitution in diet.

Association between trans fatty acids and COVID-19: A multivariate Mendelian randomization study.

Traditional observational studies have suggested a potential association between trans fatty acids (TFAs), which are considered to be health-damaging fatty acids, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, whether there is a causal relationship between them is currently unclear. We aimed to investigate the causal link between genetically determined TFAs and COVID-19. We performed univariate and multivariate Mendelian randomization (MR) studies using summary statistics from the European Pedigree TFAs (n = 8013), COVID-19 susceptibility (n = 159 840), COVID-19 hospitalization (n = 44 986), and COVID-19 severity (n = 18 152) genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The inverse variance weighted (IVW) method was used as the primary MR analysis, and several other methods were used as supplements. In univariate MR analysis, higher levels of circulating trans, cis-18:2 TFAs were positively associated with a higher COVID-19 hospitalization rate (p < 0.0033; odds ratio [OR] = 1.637; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.116-2.401) and COVID-19 severity (p < 0.0033; OR = 2.575; 95% CI: 1.412-4.698). Furthermore, in multivariate MR analysis, trans, cis-18:2 had an independent and significant causal association with a higher COVID-19 hospitalization rate (p = 0.00044; OR = 1.862; 95% CI = 1.316-2.636) and COVID-19 severity (p = 0.0016; OR = 2.268; 95% CI = 1.361-3.779) after the five TFAs were adjusted for each other. Together, our findings provide evidence that trans, cis-18:2 TFAs have an independent and robust causal effect on COVID-19 hospitalization and severity.

Structuring of oils with high PUFA content: Evaluation of the formulation conditions on the oxidative stability and structural properties of ethylcellulose oleogels.

This study evaluated the formulation of ethylcellulose oleogels as a fat substitute, based on oils with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Optimal processing conditions for canola, linseed, and chia oil oleogels were determined. The results showed that the oxidative stability was affected to a greater extent in chia oil oleogel, however, the addition of BHT improved the oxidative stability, mainly the peroxide value. Linseed and chia oil oleogels with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (64.28 and 73.02 g/100 g, respectively) were obtained despite the reduction of these with respect to their oils, and no trans fatty acids were produced. Chia oil oleogels were shown to exhibit similar physical properties to linseed oil oleogels in terms of firmness (463.51 ± 7.42 g and 443.03 ± 7.14 g respectively) and rheological behavior. Such a structure led to a dominant elastic character of the oleogels to mimic the mechanical properties of animal fat.

The gut microbiota-artery axis: A bridge between dietary lipids and atherosclerosis?

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is one of the major leading global causes of death. Growing evidence has demonstrated that gut microbiota (GM) and its metabolites play a pivotal role in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis (AS), now known as GM-artery axis. There are interactions between dietary lipids and GM, which ultimately affect GM and its metabolites. Given these two aspects, the GM-artery axis may play a mediating role between dietary lipids and AS. Diets rich in saturated fatty acids (SFAs), omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFAs), industrial trans fatty acids (TFAs), and cholesterol can increase the levels of atherogenic microbes and metabolites, whereas monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), ruminant TFAs, and phytosterols (PS) can increase the levels of antiatherogenic microbes and metabolites. Actually, dietary phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM), and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) have been demonstrated to affect AS via the GM-artery axis. Therefore, that GM-artery axis acts as a communication bridge between dietary lipids and AS. Herein, we will describe the molecular mechanism of GM-artery axis in AS and discuss the complex interactions between dietary lipids and GM. In particular, we will highlight the evidence and potential mechanisms of dietary lipids affecting AS via GM-artery axis.

Маркировка и химический состав пищевых продуктов в Российской Федерации. Сводный отчет о результатах исследования

В настоящем сводном отчете представлены результаты перекрестного одномоментного исследования,проведенного в Москве, Российская Федерация, в период с июля 2019 г. по декабрь 2020 г. Цель исследованиязаключалась в том, чтобы составить представление о продовольственной среде города, в частности о пищевойпродукции, продаваемой в розничных продуктовых магазинах и ресторанах быстрого питания, и маркировкеее пищевой ценности, а также о химическом составе наиболее широко распространенных расфасованныхпищевых продуктов, готовых блюд и фастфуда.

Dietary Ruminant and Industrial Trans-Fatty Acids Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk.

As colorectal cancer (CRC) is largely due to modifiable lifestyle habits, the awareness on its risk factors is highly important. Dietary fatty acids have been linked to CRC risk. We explored the association between dietary trans fatty acids (TFAs) intake and CRC risk. We analyzed 865 CRC cases (434 in colon and 404 in rectum) and 3206 controls of the IROPICAN study, with data collected by trained interviewers using validated questionnaires. TFAs intake (industrial and ruminant types) was categorized into quartiles. Multivariate logistic regression models were built to calculate the odds ratios (OR) for the association between CRC and TFAs. We observed a positive association between industrial TFAs and colon cancer (OR for highest vs lowest quartile [ORQ4vsQ1] = 1.28, 95% confidence interval 1.07-1.54). A higher association was observed between industrial TFAs and CRC, occurring after 50 years of age. In addition, elaidic acid was associated with an increased risk of colon (ORQ4vsQ1 = 1.58, 1.24-2.02) and specifically of proximal colon cancer (OR Q4vsQ1 = 2.12, 1.40-3.20), as well as of rectum cancer (ORQ4vsQ1 = 1.40, 1.07-1.83). An inverse association was observed between ruminant TFAs intake and colon cancer risk (ORQ4vsQ1 = 0.80, 0.67-0.97). Industrial TFAs, such as semisolid/solid hydrogenated oils, may increase the risk of CRC, especially colon and proximal colon cancer. In contrast, ruminant TFAs do not appear to be associated with CRC. Awareness programs and regulatory actions regarding hydrogenated oils are warranted, given their high consumption through ultra-processed foods in more developed and less developed countries.

Enzymatic Interesterification of Vegetable Oil:A Review on Physicochemical and Functional Properties, and Its Health Effects.

In recent years, scientists and technologists have become increasingly interested in producing modified lipids with enhanced nutritional and functional properties. The application and functional properties of fats and oil depend on the composition and structure of triacylglycerols (TAG). As a result, lipid TAG changes can be used to synthesize tailored lipids with a broader range of applications. However, no natural edible oil is available with appropriate dietary and functional properties to meet the human recommended dietary allowances (RDA). On the other hand, the arising health concern is the transfat consumption produced during the chemical modification of vegetable oil through the partial hydrogenation process. Therefore, innovative technologies are shifting toward modifying fat and oil to improve their functionality. Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) is one of the emerging and novel technology to modify the technological traits of naturally available edible oil. It helps in modifying physicochemical, functional, oxidative, and nutritional characteristics of fats and oil due to the rearrangement of the fatty acid positions in the glycerol backbone after interesterification. Enzymatic interesterification utilizes lipase as a biocatalyst with specificity and selectivity to produce desired lipids. Alternation in the molecular structure of triacylglycerol results in changes in melting/dropping point, thermal properties, crystallization behavior, solid fat content, and oxidative stability. Because of its high acyl exchange reaction efficiency, simple reaction process, flexibility, eco-friendly, and generation of fewer by-products, (EIE) is gaining more attention as a substitute lipid modification approach. This review paper discusses the uses of EIE in developing modified fat with desirable physicochemical and nutritional properties. EIE is one of the potential techniques to modify vegetable oil's physicochemical, functional, and nutritional characteristics without producing any undesirable reaction products. EIE produces different modified lipids such as trans fat-free margarine, plastic fat, bakery, confectionery fat, therapeutic oil, infant food, cocoa butter substitute, and equivalent.

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Regulates Depression-like Behaviors in Shortening-Induced Obese Mice.

Shortening is mainly derived from the partial hydrogenation of palm oil and widely used in fast food. Food processed with shortening contains high levels of industrial trans fatty acids. Studies have shown that there is a correlation between industrial trans fatty acids, obesity, and depression. However, the regulatory effect of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) on depression in obese patients is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore mood changes in obese mice fed a high shortening diet, and to determine the regulatory effect of nNOS on depressive-like behaviors in obese mice. We used a high shortening diet-induced obesity mouse model to systematically assess the metabolic response, behavioral changes, prefrontal and hippocampal nNOS protein levels, and the effect of nNOS inhibitors (7-nitroindole) on depression-like behavior in obese mice. Interestingly, obese mice on a 9-week high-shortening diet developed short-term spatial working memory impairment and anxiety-like behavior, and obesity may be a risk factor for cognitive impairment and mood disorders. In animals fed a high shortening diet for 12 weeks, obese mice developed depression-like behavior and had significantly elevated levels of nNOS protein expression in the hippocampus and prefrontal lobe. Administration of the nNOS inhibitor 7-nitroindole could improve depression-like behaviors in obese mice, further suggesting that inhibition of nNOS is helpful for depression associated with obesity.

Evaluation of Cancer Cell Growth Suppressibility of ω-3 Fatty Acids and Their Metabolites.

According to current research, cancer cell growth is suppressed by ω-3 fatty acids, which are essential fatty acids. On the other hand, ω-3 fatty acids are metabolized to bioactivities in vivo. A systematic evaluation of the ability of ω-3 fatty acids and their metabolites to suppress cancer cell growth has not been sufficiently conducted. Our work evaluated the effect of ω-3 fatty acids (docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid), trans fatty acid, and the metabolites (Resolvin E1, Maresin 1) on cancer cell growth suppressibility. Our results suggest that there may be optimal fatty acids depending on the kind of cancer cells, the presence or absence of hydroxyl group, and the double bond structure involved.

Understanding the Complexities of Eliminating Trans Fatty Acids: The Case of the Trans Fatty Acid Ban in Thailand.

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) have no known health benefits and are linked to an increased risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). To eliminate TFAs from the food supply, the government of Thailand imposed a ban on partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) in 2018. This study was aimed at analyzing the government policies and actions to eliminate TFAs in Thailand, focusing on policy content, context, process, and actors. This single-case qualitative study used a documentary review and interviews with 20 key policy actors. The data analysis was guided by thematic analysis based on the policy triangle framework. The results reveal that policy actors-government organizations, academics, civil society organizations, and the food industry-have different roles, interests, and influences with regard to eliminating TFAs in Thailand. Both formal and informal communication among policy actors aided in the policymaking process and the actions that followed. Changing perceptions of TFAs, the low intake of PHOs in Thailand, hype around trans fats, and trade dynamics shaped the government's decision to impose the ban. As a result, the ban was selected to avoid the technical components of TFA elimination. This study suggests that eliminating TFAs in Thailand could be further enhanced by strengthening government actions in terms of enforcement and creating consumer awareness.

Pre-pregnancy fat intake in relation to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have linked intakes of fat and of specific fatty acids during pregnancy with preeclampsia; however, information on the association of intake before pregnancy with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) is scant. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the associations of intakes of major and specific types of fat before pregnancy with the risks of HDP, including preeclampsia and gestational hypertension (GHTN). METHODS: We followed 11,535 women without chronic disease participating in the Nurses' Health Study II from 1991 and 2009. Pre-pregnancy dietary fat was assessed by an FFQ. Intakes of total fat, saturated fat, trans fatty acid (TFA), MUFAs, PUFAs, and fat subtypes (omega-3 and omega-6) were categorized into quintiles of intake. HDP were self-reported. The RRs (95% CIs) of HDP were estimated by log-binomial generalized estimating equation regression models, with an exchangeable correlation matrix to account for repeated pregnancies while adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: During 19 years of follow-up, there were 495 cases of preeclampsia (2.9%) and 561 (3.3%) cases of GHTN in 16,892 singleton pregnancies. The mean age at pregnancy was 34.6 years (SD, 3.9 years). Among major fat types, only pre-pregnancy TFA was related to a higher risk of HDP (RR, 1.32; 95% CI: 1.05-1.66), and only for preeclampsia (RR, 1.50; 95% CI: 1.07-2.10) but not for GHTN (RR, 1.21; 95% CI: 0.87-1.70). Among specific types of PUFAs, intake of arachidonic acid was positively related with GHTN (RR, 1.43; 95% CI: 1.00-2.04) but not preeclampsia (RR, 1.08; 95% CI: 0.75-1.57). In analyses restricted to pregnancies 1 year after the diet assessment, women with the highest intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids had a 31% lower risk of HDP (95% CI: 3%-51%), which was driven by preeclampsia (RR, 0.55; 95% CI: 0.33-0.92). CONCLUSIONS: Pre-pregnancy intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and MUFA were unrelated to HDP, whereas TFA was positively related to HDP. These findings highlight the importance of ongoing efforts to eliminate TFA from the global food supply.

Influence of Heating during Cooking on Trans Fatty Acid Content of Edible Oils: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Consumption of trans fatty acids (TFA) is associated with adverse health outcomes and is a considerable burden on morbidity and mortality globally. TFA may be generated by common cooking practices and hence contribute to daily dietary intake. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between heating edible oils and change in their TFA content. A systematic search of experimental studies investigating the effect of various methods of heating on TFA content of edible oils was conducted in Medline and Embase since their inception up to 1 October 2020 without language restrictions. Comparable data were analysed using mixed multilevel linear models taking into account individual study variation. Thirty-three studies encompassing twenty-one different oils were included in this review. Overall, heating to temperatures <200 °C had no appreciable impact on different TFA levels. Between 200 and 240 °C, levels of C18:2 t (0.05% increase per 10 °C rise in temperature, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.05%), C18:3t (0.18%, 95% CI: 0.14 to 0.21%), and total TFA (0.38%, 95% CI: 0.20 to 0.55%) increased with temperature. A further increase in total TFA was observed with prolonged heating between 200 and 240 °C. Our findings suggest that heating edible oils to common cooking temperatures (≤200 °C) has minimal effect on TFA generation whereas heating to higher temperatures can increase TFA level. This provides further evidence in favour of public health advice that heating oils to very high temperatures and prolonged heating of oils should be avoided.