Forsythoside A inhibits adhesion and migration of monocytes to type II alveolar epithelial cells in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury through upregulating miR-124.

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe disease for which effective drugs are still lacking at present. Forsythia suspensa is a traditional Chinese medicine commonly used to relieve respiratory symptoms in China, but its functional mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, forsythoside A (FA), the active constituent of F. suspensa, was studied in the present study. Inflammation models of type II alveolar epithelial MLE-12 cells and BALB/c mice stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were established to explore the effects of FA on ALI and the underlying mechanisms. We found that FA inhibited the production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) in LPS-stimulated MLE-12 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, FA decreased the adhesion and migration of monocytes to MLE-12 cells. Furthermore, miR-124 expression was upregulated after FA treatment. The luciferase report assay showed that miR-124 mimic reduced the activity of CCL2 in MLE-12 cells. However, the inhibitory effects of FA on CCL2 expression and monocyte adhesion and migration to MLE-12 cells were counteracted by treatment with a miR-124 inhibitor. Critically, FA ameliorated LPS-induced pathological damage, decreased the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6, and inhibited CCL2 secretion and macrophage infiltration in lungs in ALI mice. Meanwhile, administration of miR-124 inhibitor attenuated the protective effects of FA. The present study suggests that FA attenuates LPS-induced adhesion and migration of monocytes to type II alveolar epithelial cells though upregulating miR-124, thereby inhibiting the expression of CCL2. These findings indicate that the potential application of FA is promising and that miR-124 mimics could also be used in the treatment of ALI.

Alveolus-like organoid from isolated tip epithelium of embryonic mouse lung.

Embryonic lungs were obtained from embryonic day 13.5 ICR mice. The lung-tip epithelium isolated using dispase treatment was embedded in low-growth factor Matrigel, cultured in DMEM/F12 medium containing 0.1% bovine serum albumin, supplemented with insulin, transferrin, and selenium (ITS), with or without fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7), and were observed for 14 days. With the addition of FGF7, the tip epithelium grew to form a cyst by culture day 7. Then, tubular tufts-like alveolus appeared around the cyst surface. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction revealed that, with the addition of FGF7, the cultured lung explants expressed alveolar-type 1 cell markers, such as HopX and Aquaporin5, and type 2 cell markers, such as Lamp3 and Surfactant apoproteins (Sftp) C and D. Paraffin-embedded sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and alveolar structures at culture day 14 were composed of squamous and cuboidal epithelial cells. Immunohistochemical studies showed that the squamous epithelial cells were positive for HopX, and the cuboidal epithelial cells were positive for pro-SftpC. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopic observation confirmed that the squamous epithelial cells were alveolar-type 1 cells and the cuboidal cells were type 2 cells, because they had many lamellar inclusion bodies. Embryonic lung-tip epithelium forms an alveolus-like organoid through the self organization with the aid of Matrigel, ITS, and FGF7. This method to make alveolus-like organoid in vitro is easy, reproducible, and economical. This method could have potential to solve many issues in alveolar epithelial cells in normal and pathological conditions.

Microparticle Release from Cell Lines and Its Anti-Influenza Activity.

Microparticles (MPs) are vesicles that are released by budding from plasma membrane of living cells. Recently, the role of MPs in antiviral activity has been proposed. We investigated quantity and anti-influenza activity of MPs from human alveolar epithelial cells A549, human bronchial epithelial cells BEAS-2B, human colon adenocarcinoma cells HT-29, and the human lung fibroblast cells MRC-5. MPs were found from all four cell lines. However, anti-influenza activity against an H1N1 influenza virus was found only from MPs of A549 and BEAS-2B. BEAS-2B cell differentiation did not increase MP release. Methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (MßCD) increased MP release and anti-influenza activity in HT-29 and A549. MP release increased after calcium ionophore A23187 treatment in three cell lines but only in HT-29 after forskolin treatment. These findings provide in vitro data supporting the role of MPs as an innate defense against influenza virus and as an approach to enhance the defense.

Procyanidin A2 Modulates IL-4-Induced CCL26 Production in Human Alveolar Epithelial Cells.

Allergic asthma is an inflammatory lung disease that is partly sustained by the chemokine eotaxin-3 (CCL26), which extends eosinophil migration into tissues long after allergen exposure. Modulation of CCL26 could represent a means to mitigate airway inflammation. Here we evaluated procyanidin A2 as a means of modulating CCL26 production and investigated interactions with the known inflammation modulator, Interferon γ (IFNγ). We used the human lung epithelial cell line A549 and optimized the conditions for inducing CCL26. Cells were exposed to a range of procyanidin A2 or IFNγ concentrations for varied lengths of time prior to an inflammatory insult of interleukin-4 (IL-4) for 24 h. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure CCL26 production. Exposing cells to 5 µM procyanidin A2 (prior to IL-4) reduced CCL26 production by 35% compared with control. Greatest inhibition by procyanidin A2 was seen with a 2 h exposure prior to IL-4, whereas IFNγ inhibition was greatest at 24 h. Concomitant incubation of procyanidin A2 and IFNγ did not extend the inhibitory efficacy of procyanidin A2. These data provide evidence that procyanidin A2 can modulate IL-4-induced CCL26 production by A549 lung epithelial cells and that it does so in a manner that is different from IFNγ.

An Optimised Human Cell Culture Model for Alveolar Epithelial Transport.

Robust and reproducible in vitro models are required for investigating the pathways involved in fluid homeostasis in the human alveolar epithelium. We performed functional and phenotypic characterisation of ion transport in the human pulmonary epithelial cell lines NCI-H441 and A549 to determine their similarity to primary human alveolar type II cells. NCI-H441 cells exhibited high expression of junctional proteins ZO-1, and E-cadherin, seal-forming claudin-3, -4, -5 and Na+-K+-ATPase while A549 cells exhibited high expression of pore-forming claudin-2. Consistent with this phenotype NCI-H441, but not A549, cells formed a functional barrier with active ion transport characterised by higher electrical resistance (529 ± 178 Ω cm2 vs 28 ± 4 Ω cm2), lower paracellular permeability ((176 ± 42) ×10-8 cm/s vs (738 ± 190) ×10-8 cm/s) and higher transepithelial potential difference (11.9 ± 4 mV vs 0 mV). Phenotypic and functional properties of NCI-H441 cells were tuned by varying cell seeding density and supplement concentrations. The cells formed a polarised monolayer typical of in vivo epithelium at seeding densities of 100,000 cells per 12-well insert while higher densities resulted in multiple cell layers. Dexamethasone and insulin-transferrin-selenium supplements were required for the development of high levels of electrical resistance, potential difference and expression of claudin-3 and Na+-K+-ATPase. Treatment of NCI-H441 cells with inhibitors and agonists of sodium and chloride channels indicated sodium absorption through ENaC under baseline and forskolin-stimulated conditions. Chloride transport was not sensitive to inhibitors of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) under either condition. Channels inhibited by 5-nitro-1-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB) contributed to chloride secretion following forskolin stimulation, but not at baseline. These data precisely define experimental conditions for the application of NCI-H441 cells as a model for investigating ion and water transport in the human alveolar epithelium and also identify the pathways of sodium and chloride transport.

Salvianolic acid B improves bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell differentiation into alveolar epithelial cells type I via Wnt signaling.

Acute lung injury (ALI) is among the most common causes of mortality in intensive care units. Previous studies have suggested that bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) may attenuate pulmonary edema. In addition, alveolar epithelial cells type I (ATI) are involved in reducing the alveolar edema in response to ALI. However, the mechanism involved in improving the efficiency of differentiation of MSCs into ATI remains to be elucidated. In the present study, the effect of salvianolic acid B (Sal B) on the differentiation of BMSCs into ATI and the activities of the Wnt signaling pathways were investigated. The BMSCs were supplemented with conditioned medium (CM). The groups were as follows: i) CM group: BMSCs were supplemented with CM; ii) lithium chloride (LiCl) group: BMSCs were supplemented with CM and 5 mM LiCl; iii) Sal B group: BMSCs were supplemented with CM and 10 mM Sal B. The samples were collected and assessed on days 7 and 14. It was revealed that aquaporin (AQP)-5 and T1α were expressed in BMSCs, and induction with LiCl or Sal B increased the expression of AQP-5 and T1α. Furthermore, the Wnt-1 and Wnt-3a signaling pathways were activated during the differentiation of BMSCs into ATI. In conclusion, it was suggested that the promotive effects of Sal B on the differentiation of BMSCs into ATI occurred through the activation of Wnt signaling pathways.

Intracellular accumulation dynamics and fate of zinc ions in alveolar epithelial cells exposed to airborne ZnO nanoparticles at the air-liquid interface.

Airborne nanoparticles (NPs) that enter the respiratory tract are likely to reach the alveolar region. Accumulating observations support a role for zinc oxide (ZnO) NP dissolution in toxicity, but the majority of in-vitro studies were conducted in cells exposed to NPs in growth media, where large doses of dissolved ions are shed into the exposure solution. To determine the precise intracellular accumulation dynamics and fate of zinc ions (Zn(2+)) shed by airborne NPs in the cellular environment, we exposed alveolar epithelial cells to aerosolized NPs at the air-liquid interface (ALI). Using a fluorescent indicator for Zn(2+), together with organelle-specific fluorescent proteins, we quantified Zn(2+) in single cells and organelles over time. We found that at the ALI, intracellular Zn(2+) values peaked 3 h post exposure and decayed to normal values by 12 h, while in submerged cultures, intracellular Zn(2+) values continued to increase over time. The lowest toxic NP dose at the ALI generated peak intracellular Zn(2+) values that were nearly three-folds lower than the peak values generated by the lowest toxic dose of NPs in submerged cultures, and eight-folds lower than the peak values generated by the lowest toxic dose of ZnSO4 or Zn(2+). At the ALI, the majority of intracellular Zn(2+) was found in endosomes and lysosomes as early as 1 h post exposure. In contrast, the majority of intracellular Zn(2+) following exposures to ZnSO4 was found in other larger vesicles, with less than 10% in endosomes and lysosomes. Together, our observations indicate that low but critical levels of intracellular Zn(2+) have to be reached, concentrated specifically in endosomes and lysosomes, for toxicity to occur, and point to the focal dissolution of the NPs in the cellular environment and the accumulation of the ions specifically in endosomes and lysosomes as the processes underlying the potent toxicity of airborne ZnO NPs.

[Inhibitory effect of Panax notoginseng saponins on alveolar epithelial to mesenchymal transition].

In the study, the effects of Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) on alveolar epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and extracellular matrix degradation were observed in a type of human alveolar epithelial cell, A549 cells, stimulated by TGF-beta1. Firstly, MTT method was applied to evaluation of cellular proliferation and found that PNS from 12.5 mg x L(-1) to 200 mg x L(-1) dosage could not inhibit significantly cellular proliferation. Then, cells were divided into five groups, normal group, TGF-beta1 group, TGF-beta1 + 50 mg x L(-1) PNS group, TGF-beta1 + 100 mg x L(-1) PNS group and TGF-beta1 + 200 mg x L(-1) PNS group. Normal cells were not stimulatec by TGF-beta1; TGF-beta1 cells were only stimulated by TGF-beta1 and the other cells were stimulated by TGF-beta1 with different doses of PNS, respectively. After stimulation, cells and supernatants were collected for assays. Cellular roundness was applied to quantitative evaluation of morphological change. Immunocytochemistry was applied to examine E-cadherion, a-SMA and FN proteins expression in the cells. Enzyme linked-immunosorbent assay was applied to MMP-9 and TIMP-1 levels. The results showed that EMT of A549 cells was induced by TGF-beta1, showing significant change of roundness, E-cadherion, alpha-SMA and FN (P < 0.05, P < 0.01). Compared to TGF-beta1, PNS significantly inhibited the changes of roundness (P < 0.05), FN and alpha-SMA (P < 0.05, P < 0.01) and not significantly inhibited the change of E-cadherion. Furthermore, MMP-9 levels were significantly increased by TGFbeta1 stimulation (P < 0.05), without significant change of TIMP-1. Compared with TGF-beta1, PNS could significantly increase MMP-9 level (P < 0.05) and decrease TIMP-1 levels (P < 0.05, P < 0.01). In conclusion, PNS could inhibit alveolar epithelial cell EMT induced by TGF-beta1, with increase of extracellular matrix degradation ability, which showed anti-fibrosis of lung ability.

[Relationship between artesunate influence on the process of TGF-beta1 induced alveolar epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal cells and on idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis].

This study is to investigate the effect of artesunate on transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and its possible mechanism. After the in vitro cultured RLE-6TN cells were treated with TGF-beta1 then artesunate intervened on it, after 24 h, expression of the markers of mesenchymal cell was assayed using Western blotting and real-time PCR analysis. Western blotting was also used to detect the effect of TGF-beta1 on the Smad3 and Smad7 expressions of RLE-6TN cells. Morphological alterations were examined by phase-contrast microscope, and ultrastructure changes by electron microscope. Incubation of RLE-6TN cells with TGF-beta1 resulted in the up-regulation of the expression of the mesenchymal cell markers, after artesunate intervened on it, resulted in the down-regulation of the expression. Meanwhile, incubation with artesunate intervened on RLE-6TN cells could lead to the apparent down-regulation of the expression of Smad3 and up-regulation of Samd7 and the transition of RLE-6TN cells to mesenchymal-like by TGF-beta1 induction, after artesunate intervened on it, RLE-6TN cells to epithelial-like. TGF-beta1 induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition process; artesunate can inhibit TGF-beta1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition process, the possible mechanism is up-regulation of the expression of Smad7 and down-regulation of the expression of Smad3, meanwhile inhibits phosphorylation of Smad3.

Isolation and cultivation of metabolically competent alveolar epithelial cells from A/J mice.

The A/J mouse strain is used in lung cancer studies. To enable mechanistic investigations the isolation and cultivation of alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) is desirable. Based on four different protocols dispase digestion of lung tissue was best and yielded 9.3 ± 1.5 × 10(6) AECs. Of these 61 ± 13% and 43 ± 5% were positive for AP and NBT staining, respectively. Purification by discontinuous Percoll gradient centrifugation did not change this ratio; however, reduced the total cell yield to 4.4 ± 1.1 × 10(6) AECs. Flow cytometry of lectin bound AECs determined 91 ± 7% and 87 ± 5% as positive for Helix pomatia and Maclura pomifera to evidence type II pneumocytes. On day 3 in culture the ethoxyresorufin-O-demethylase activity was 251 ± 80 pmol/4 h × 1.5 × 10(6) and the production of androstenedione proceed at 243.5 ± 344.4 pmol/24 h × 1.5 × 10(6) AECs. However, 6-α, 6-ß and 16-ß-hydroxytestosterone were produced about 20-fold less as compared to androstenedione and the production of metabolites depended on the culture media supplemented with 2% mouse serum or 10% FCS. Finally, by RT-PCR expression of CYP genes was confirmed in lung tissue and AECs; a link between testosterone metabolism and CYP2A12, 3A16 and 2B9/10 expression was established. Taken collectively, AECs can be successfully isolated and cultured for six days while retaining metabolic competence.

Desensitization by different strategies of epidermal growth factor receptor and ErbB4.

Four transmembrane tyrosine kinases constitute the ErbB protein family: epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or ErbB1, ErbB2, ErbB3, and ErbB4. In general, the structure and mechanism of the activation of these members are similar. However, significant differences in homologous desensitization are known between EGFR and ErbB4. Desensitization of ligand-occupied EGFR occurs by endocytosis, while that of ErbB4 occurs by selective cleavage at the cell surface. Because ErbB4 is abundantly expressed in neurons from fetal to adult brains, elucidation of the desensitization mechanism is important to understand neuronal development and synaptic functions. Recently, it has become clear that heterologous desensitization of EGFR and ErbB4 are induced by endocytosis and cleavage, respectively, similar to homologous desensitization. It has been reported that heterologous desensitization of EGFR is induced by serine phosphorylation of EGFR via the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAP kinase) pathway in various cell lines, including alveolar epithelial cells. In contrast, the protein kinase C pathway is involved in ErbB4 cleavage. In this review, we will describe recent advances in the desensitization mechanisms of EGFR and ErbB4, mainly in alveolar epithelial cells and hypothalamic neurons, respectively.

Blackcurrant cultivar polyphenolic extracts suppress CCL26 secretion from alveolar epithelial cells.

Eosinophil recruitment to the airways is a characteristic feature of allergic asthma. Eotaxins are potent chemokines that regulate the recruitment of eosinophils to sites of inflammation. Of these, CCL26 is linked to persistent eosinophil recruitment in the later phase of an allergic response. We evaluated the effectiveness of 10 different blackcurrant cultivar polyphenolic extracts in suppressing CCL26 secretion in stimulated human alveolar epithelial cells. Correlation analysis to identify the potential blackcurrant composition constituent(s) involved in CCL26 suppression and the effects of the four major anthocyanins present in blackcurrants to validate results was conducted. All blackcurrant polyphenolic extracts suppressed CCL26 secretion by lung alveolar cells; however, differential efficacy was observed, which was attributed to their cultivar-specific polyphenolic composition profiles. We identified that the ratio of concentrations of delphinidin glycosides to cyanidin glycosides in the blackcurrant cultivars was an important determinant in influencing CCL26 suppression in lung cells. Our findings support the potential use of blackcurrants or blackcurrant-derived foods/ingredients in managing lung inflammation and the development of specific cultivars as functional foods/ingredients with beneficial biological activities.

Pressure induced lung injury in a novel in vitro model of the alveolar interface: protective effect of dexamethasone.

PURPOSE: The lungs of infants born with congenital diaphragmatic hernia suffer from immaturity as well as the short and long term consequences of ventilator-induced lung injury, including chronic lung disease. Antenatal and postnatal steroids are among current strategies promoted to treat premature lungs and limit long term morbidity. Although studied in whole-animal models, insight into ventilator-induced injury at the alveolar-capillary interface as well as the benefits of steroids, remains limited. The present study utilizes a multi-fluidic in vitro model of the alveolar-interface to analyze membrane disruption from compressive aerodynamic forces in dexamethasone-treated cultures. METHODS: Human alveolar epithelial cell lines, H441 and A549, were cultured in a custom-built chamber under constant aerodynamic shear followed by introduction of pressure stimuli with and without dexamethasone (0.1µM). On-chip bioelectrical measurements were noted to track changes to the cellular surface and live-dead assay to ascertain cellular viability. RESULTS: Pressure-exposed alveolar cultures demonstrated a significant drop in TEER that was less prominent with an underlying extracellular-matrix coating. Addition of dexamethasone resulted in increased alveolar layer integrity demonstrated by higher TEER values. Furthermore, dexamethasone-treated cells exhibited faster recovery, and the effects of pressure appeared to be mitigated in both cell types. CONCLUSION: Using a novel in vitro model of the alveolus, we demonstrate a dose-response relationship between pressure application and loss of alveolar layer integrity. This effect appears to be alleviated by dexamethasone and matrix sub-coating.

Rikkunshito ameliorates bleomycin-induced acute lung injury in a ghrelin-independent manner.

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a critical syndrome consisting of acute respiratory failure associated with extensive pulmonary infiltrates. The pathological characterization of ALI includes injuries of alveolar epithelial cells (AECs), alveolar neutrophilic infiltration, and increases in proinflammatory cytokines, which cause destruction of the alveolar capillary barrier and subsequent devastating lung fibrosis. Rikkunshito (RKT), a traditional Japanese herbal medicine, is widely used for the treatment of patients with gastrointestinal symptoms and is known to stimulate ghrelin secretion. The therapeutic effects of RKT on organ inflammation and fibrosis remain unknown. We investigated the pharmacological potential of RKT in the treatment of ALI by using a bleomycin-induced ALI model in mice. RKT or distilled water (DW) was given to mice daily starting 12 h after bleomycin administration. The RKT-treated mice showed a definitively higher survival rate than the DW-treated mice after injury. They also had smaller reductions in body weight and food intake. The amelioration of neutrophil alveolar infiltration, pulmonary vascular permeability, induction of proinflammatory cytokines, activation of the NF-κB pathway, apoptosis of AECs, and subsequent lung fibrosis were notable in the RKT-treated mice. RKT administration increased the plasma ghrelin levels in wild-type mice, and it also mitigated the ALI response in both ghrelin-deficient mice and growth hormone secretagogue receptor-deficient mice after lung injury. Our results indicate that RKT administration exerts protective effects against ALI by protecting the AECs and regulating lung inflammation independently of the ghrelin system, and they highlight RKT as a promising therapeutic agent for the management of this intractable disease.

Berberine attenuates cigarette smoke-induced acute lung inflammation.

Berberine (Ber), the major constituent of Coptidis Rhizoma, possesses anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we investigated the effects of Ber on cigarette smoke (CS)-mediated acute lung inflammation. C57BL/6 mice (6-8 weeks) were exposed to CS to induce acute lung injury. Ber was used to pretreat CS-exposed mice (50 mg/kg, intragastrically). Lung tissues were collected for histological examination, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity assay, Western blot analysis, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was measured for cell counts and cytokine analysis. Histological examination showed that CS exposure caused infiltration of inflammatory cells into alveolar spaces and interstitial edema. Pretreatment with Ber significantly attenuated CS-induced lung inflammation. The numbers of total cells, macrophages, and neutrophils in BALF were decreased by 43, 40, and 53 %, respectively, by Ber pretreatment in CS-exposed mice, accompanied by decreased MPO activity, a marker of neutrophil accumulation. Ber pretreatment also profoundly diminished CS-induced secretions of macrophage inflammatory protein 2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in BALF, along with less nuclear translocation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 subunit and lower NF-κB DNA-binding activity (P < 0.01). Thus, our results indicated that Ber ameliorates CS-induced acute lung injury through its anti-inflammatory activity.

Effect of tobacco extract on surfactant synthesis and its reversal by retinoic acid-role of cell-cell interactions in vitro.

Tobacco induces oxidative stress in the alveolar epithelium and causes its damage. Retinoic acid (RA) has a cardinal role in alveolar cell growth, differentiation, and maturation. The aim of the study was to investigate the role of cell-cell interactions and whether RA could reverse the effect of tobacco extract on epithelial function as expressed by surfactant synthesis. For this, an in vitro model, which provides multiple cell type interactions, as seen in vivo, was used. We had used the major lung cell types, alveolar epithelial and mesenchymal cells represented by the cell lines A549 (human lung adenocarcinoma cell line), and human fetal lung fibroblast-1 (HFL-1) for developing the monoculture and co-culture systems and studied the effect of tobacco extract and retinoic acid. The effect of tobacco and retinoic acid both singly and in combination on proliferation and surfactant synthesis was analyzed. Retinoic acid induced proliferation and upregulated surfactant synthesis in monocultures and co-cultures. Tobacco extract at 100 µg/ml concentration decreased A549 proliferation and upregulated surfactant protein mRNA expression. In co-cultures treated with tobacco extract (100 µg/ml), retinoic acid (1 µM), regulated cell proliferation, and surfactant protein mRNA expression vis-à-vis the monoculture system. This clearly points to the fact that cell-cell interactions modulate the effect of additives or stimulants and help in assessing the in vivo combinatorial responses in vitro and that the retinoic acid effect is regenerative.

Impact of the omega-3 to omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio on cytokine release in human alveolar cells.

BACKGROUND: ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and ω-6 PUFAs have opposing influences on inflammation. The objective was to determine whether lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine release by human alveolar cells was affected by changes in the ω-3/ω-6 ratio of cell membranes induced by different supplies of PUFAs. METHODS: After LPS challenge, PUFAs were added to alveolar cells as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, ω-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, ω-6) in 4 different DHA/AA ratios (1:1, 1:2, 1:4, and 1:7), and the effects on cytokine release were measured. RESULTS: The supply of 1:1 and 1:2 DHA/AA ratios reversed the baseline predominance of ω-6 over ω-3 in the ω-3/ω-6 PUFA ratio of cell membranes. The release of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8) was reduced by 1:1 and 1:2 DHA/AA ratios (P < .01 to P < .001) but increased by 1:4 and 1:7 DHA/AA ratios (P < .01 to P < .001) vs control. The 1:1 and 1:2 ratios increased the release of anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 (P < .001). The balance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines showed an anti-inflammatory response with 1:1 and 1:2 ratios and a proinflammatory response with 1:4 and 1:7 ratios (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that proinflammatory cytokine release was dependent on the proportion of ω-3 in the ω-3/ω-6 ratio of alveolar cell membranes, being reduced with the supply of a high proportion of DHA and increased with a high proportion of AA, respectively. These results support the biochemical basis for current recommendations to shift the PUFA supply from ω-6 to ω-3 in nutrition support of patients with acute lung injury.

Suppression of interleukin (IL)-8 and human beta defensin-2 secretion in LPS-and/or IL-1ß-stimulated airway epithelial A549 cells by a herbal formulation against respiratory infections (BNO 1030).

AIM OF THE STUDY: A special ethanolic-aqueous extract from seven traditional medicinal plants (BNO 1030) has been used for several decades to treat recurrent infections of the respiratory tract. Considering the potential role of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and human beta defensin-2 (hBD-2) in inflammation, we investigated the effect of BNO 1030 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa or IL-1ß-induced inflammatory mediators in A549 human type II alveolar epithelial cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A549 cells were stimulated with LPS (100 µg/ml) or IL-1ß (50 ng/ml) in the presence of the preparation and the secretion of IL-8 and hBD-2 were measured after 18 h and 24h in cell free supernatants using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Cell viability and cell growth was investigated by propidium iodide uptake and WST-1 assay, respectively. RESULTS: BNO 1030 inhibited the secretion of IL-8 and hBD-2 at non-cytotoxic concentrations (0.1-100 µg/ml; cell growth inhibitory concentration, 50% (IC(50))=678 ± 87.6 µg/ml). Stimulation by IL-1ß led to a 7-fold activation of IL-8 secretion, which was reduced by 37.7 ± 4.1% (p<0.05) after incubation with 100 µg/ml BNO 1030. Inducible hBD-2 was suppressed by 91.8 ± 15.6% (p<0.01) at the same concentration of BNO 1030 (IC(50)=0.7 ± 0.1 µg/ml). The 2-fold increase of IL-8 secretion by LPS-stimulated cells was completely abolished at concentration of 50 µg/ml BNO 1030 (IC(50)=5.7±3.6 µg/ml). CONCLUSION: BNO 1030 suppressed the secretion of IL-8 and hBD-2 in cultured epithelial A549 cells. These results support its use as a phytotherapeutic product prepared from traditional remedies in inflammatory diseases, especially those affecting the respiratory tract.

Delivering horseradish peroxidase as a respirable powder to the isolated, perfused, and ventilated lung of the rat: the pulmonary disposition of an inhaled model biopharmaceutical.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to investigate the potential of the DustGun aerosol technology integrated with the isolated, perfused, and ventilated lung of the rat (IPL) to study the pulmonary disposition of an inhaled model biopharmaceutical, the 40-kDa protein horseradish peroxidase (HRP). METHOD: The DustGun aerosol technology was used to deliver respirable powder aerosols of HRP (the mass median aerodynamic diameter: 1.7 µm) as an 80-sec bolus to the IPL perfused in a single-pass mode. Lung perfusate was repeatedly sampled for 125 min after the HRP exposure. The amount of active HRP clearing with the perfusate or being retained in the lung was measured enzymatically. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The total amount of HRP deposited in the lungs was 335 ± 100 µg and 568 ± 47 µg for a low- and high-dose exposure, respectively. After inhalation, the initial appearance of HRP in the perfusate was rapid. However, the total amount of HRP that cleared with the perfusate remained below 0.5% of the deposited dose. The effect of opening the tight junctions between the alveolar epithelial cells on HRP absorption was studied by exposing the IPL to nebulized aerosols of either 0.02, 0.2, or 2% poly-L-Arginine (PLA) (MW 42.5 kDa) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 5 min, at 40 min after the HRP exposure. Subsequent exposure to 0.02% PLA did not affect HRP absorption. However, exposure to 0.2% PLA increased the absorption rate ninefold, and the total amount of HRP clearing with the perfusate increased to approximately 4% of the deposited dose. No further increase was obtained with 2% PLA, indicating a steep dose-response for the enhancer. It was concluded that the pulmonary absorption of HRP is quite slow, and absorption enhancers affecting tight junctions have a distinctive, yet limited efficiency. The presented inhalation technology can be very useful in studying the pulmonary absorption of biopharmaceuticals.

Assessing the in vitro toxicity of the lunar dust environment using respiratory cells exposed to Al(2)O(3) or SiO(2) fine dust particles.

Prior chemical and physical analysis of lunar soil suggests a composition of dust particles that may contribute to the development of acute and chronic respiratory disorders. In this study, fine Al(2)O(3) (0.7 µm) and fine SiO(2) (mean 1.6 µm) were used to assess the cellular uptake and cellular toxicity of lunar dust particle analogs. Respiratory cells, murine alveolar macrophages (RAW 264.7) and human type II epithelial (A549), were cultured as the in vitro model system. The phagocytic activity of both cell types using ultrafine (0.1 µm) and fine (0.5 µm) fluorescent polystyrene beads was determined. Following a 6-h exposure, RAW 264.7 cells had extended pseudopods with beads localized in the cytoplasmic region of cells. After 24 h, the macrophage cells were rounded and clumped and lacked pseudopods, which suggest impairment of phagocytosis. A549 cells did not contain beads, and after 24 h, the majority of the beads appeared to primarily coat the surface of the cells. Next, we investigated the cellular response to fine SiO(2) and Al(2)O(3) (up to 5 mg/ml). RAW 264.7 cells exposed to 1.0 mg/ml of fine SiO(2) for 6 h demonstrated pseudopods, cellular damage, apoptosis, and necrosis. A549 cells showed slight toxicity when exposed to fine SiO(2) for the same time and dose. A549 cells had particles clustered on the surface of the cells. Only a higher dose (5.0 mg/ml) of fine SiO(2) resulted in a significant cytotoxicity to A549 cells. Most importantly, both cell types showed minimal cytotoxicity following exposure to fine Al(2)O(3). Overall, this study suggests differential cellular toxicity associated with exposure to fine mineral dust particles.