Posthypnotic Amnesia in Hypnotizability Assessment: Validation of a New Scoring System for the Hypnotic Induction Profile.

The Hypnotic Induction Profile (HIP) is a standardized assessment of hypnotizability featuring a validated 0-10 scoring system, that does not factor in posthypnotic amnesia. Using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), we compared the 10-point scoring system with a new 12-point system that includes the posthypnotic amnesia item in independent samples of individuals with fibromyalgia (n = 98) and healthy adults (n = 97). Additionally, we explored associations of the two scoring systems with measures of hypnotic phenomena. CFA results indicate that the 12-point scoring system is a good fit for the 1-factor model of hypnotizability. Posthypnotic amnesia loaded highly on the model in the fibromyalgia sample, and moderately on the model in healthy adults. Furthermore, the 12-point scoring system correlated significantly with measures of hypnotic phenomena. We conclude that the 12-point scoring system is psychometrically equivalent yet conceptually more comprehensive than the 10-point scoring system.

Effectiveness of Yi-Zhi-An-Shen granules on cognition and sleep quality in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: protocol for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is a syndrome characterized by significant forgetfulness that does not meet the criteria of dementia. Individuals with aMCI are at greater risk of progressing to dementia. Current studies suggest that good sleep quality is linked with preserved cognition in the elderly, and sleep complaints are common among the elderly with amnesia. Therefore, improving their sleep may be helpful for maintaining and improving their cognitive capacity. According to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, Yi-Zhi-An-Shen is an herbal compound which may ameliorate forgetfulness and sleep disorders. As growing evidence indicates that the gut microbiome is associated with major mental symptoms, a hypothesis was proposed that Yi-Zhi-An-Shen granules (YZASG) might work by alternating microbial abundance and diversity. In this study, the investigators intend to assess the efficacy of YZASG on global cognition in the elderly suffering from aMCI and evaluate its safety as well as its potential mechanisms via sleep quality, fecal microbial 16S ribosomal DNA and metagenomics analyses, and serum markers. METHODS/DESIGN: This study is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. A total of 80 patients (aged 60-85 years) will be recruited and allocated randomly to a treatment group and a placebo group in a 1:1 ratio and will then be administered YZASG or isodose placebo three times a day. The intervention course is 16 weeks, with an 18 months follow-up. The primary outcome is the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale. Secondary outcome measures are the Mini-Mental State Examination, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, serum concentrations of immunological factors and inflammatory cytokines, and fecal microbiota. Fecal microbiota will only be collected at the baseline and endpoint of the intervention. DISCUSSION: The results of this trial will be conducive to assessing the safety and effectiveness on cognition of YZASG in intervening aMCI among the elderly and determining if it takes effect via the improvement of sleep quality, regulation of gut microbiota, and concentration of certain serum markers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03601000 . Registered on 26 July 2018.

Recovered memories in clinical practice - a research review. / Odzyskiwanie wspomnien w praktyce klinicznej ­ przeglad badan.

The problem of recovered memories concerns not only psychiatry, psychology or psychotherapy but it is also an important legal and judicial issue. Clinicians, scientists and lawyers are in unsolved dispute, called "memory wars", concerning the credibility of these memories, especially if they were recovered following specific therapeutic techniques or using self-help books. Many cases of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse brought legal action against alleged offender. Investigations showed, however, that some of these memories were false. The aim of this article is to try to answer key questions concerning the issue if recovered memories: Is it possible not to remember traumatic experiences? In what conditions the autobiographical memories can be implanted? Is it possible to make a list of therapeutic techniques evoking false memories? What are the characteristics of a patient particularly vulnerable for false memories creation? Answers to the above questions are a ground for considerations concerning creation of favorable conditions for therapeutic work and minimizing mistakes resulting from the risk of implanting false memories.

Aqueous extracts from asparagus stems prevent memory impairments in scopolamine-treated mice.

Aqueous extracts from Asparagus officinalis L. stems (AEAS) are rich in polysaccharides, gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), and steroidal saponin. This study was designed to investigate the effects of AEAS on learning, memory, and acetylcholinesterase-related activity in a scopolamine-induced model of amnesia. Sixty ICR mice were randomly divided into 6 groups (n = 10) including the control group (CT), scopolamine group (SC), donepezil group (DON), low, medium, and high dose groups of AEAS (LS, MS, HS; 1.6 mL kg-1, 8 mL kg-1, 16 mL kg-1). The results showed that 8 mL kg-1 of AEAS used in this study significantly reversed scopolamine-induced cognitive impairments in mice in the novel object recognition test (P < 0.05) and the Y-maze test (P < 0.05), and also improved the latency to escape in the Morris water maze test (P < 0.05). Moreover, it significantly increased acetylcholine and inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity in the hippocampus, which was directly related to the reduction in learning and memory impairments. It also reversed scopolamine-induced reduction in the hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) mRNA expression. AEAS protected against scopolamine-induced memory deficits. In conclusion, AEAS protected learning and memory function in mice by enhancing the activity of the cholinergic nervous system, and increasing BDNF and CREB expression. This suggests that AEAS has the potential to prevent cognitive impairments in age-related diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease.

Evaluation of anti-amnesic effect of extracts of selected Ocimum species using in-vitro and in-vivo models.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ocimum species are traditionally used for the treatment of anxiety, nerve pain, convulsions and a variety of neurodegenerative disorders. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the anti-amnesic effect of O. basilicum L., O. sanctum L. and O. gratissimum L. extracts using in-vitro and in-vivo models. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In-vitro acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory and antioxidant activities of hydro-methanol extracts of plants were evaluated using Ellman and DPPH and FRAP assays, respectively. The most active extract i.e. O. basilicum extract (OBE) was further explored for the possible anti-amnesic activity in mouse model of scopolamine induced amnesia using behavioral models (elevated plus maze and passive shock avoidance task). Brain AChE activity, oxidative profile and histopathological studies were assessed to outline the anti-amnesic mechanism of the extract. RESULTS: Significant antioxidant and AChE inhibition activity was observed with all prepared extracts and however, OBE showed most marked free radical scavenging, reducing power and AChE inhibition (IC50 0.65±0.15mg/ml) activity. Basil leaves were standardized with respect to content of 7 phenolic acids using a HPLC-PDA method. A TLC densitometric method was employed to determine the quercetin content in the leaves. The in-vivo studies showed that OBE pre-treatment (200 and 400mg/kg, p.o.) reversed the memory deficit induced by scopolamine in mice, evident by significant (p<0.05) decrease in the transfer latency time and increase in step down latency in elevated plus maze and passive shock avoidance task, respectively. Moreover, OBE significantly reduced the brain AChE activity and oxidative stress. Further, histopathological examination of brain tissues displayed decrease in vacuolated cytoplasm and increase in pyramidal cells in hippocampal and cortical regions with OBE pre-treatment. CONCLUSION: OBE possesses antioxidant and AChE inhibitory activity. These biochemical changes are responsible for the anti-amnesic and neuroprotective activities of O. basilicum which may be attributed to the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. This can be developed as an effective anti-amnesic drug.

Acupuncture for amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.

OBJECTIVE: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a pre-dementia state; 5-10% of cases per year will evolve into dementia. MCI can be amnestic (AMCI) or non-amnestic. AMCI is associated with a higher risk of progression. In recent years, interest in acupuncture as a potential treatment for AMCI has grown. The aim of this meta-analysis was to estimate the clinical effectiveness and safety of acupuncture for AMCI. METHODS: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture versus medical treatment for AMCI were identified using the following databases from inception to July 2015: PubMed; Medline; CENTRAL; Chinese Scientific Journal Database; The Chinese Acupuncture Trials Register; China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI); and Wanfang database. Data were extracted from RCTs meeting the inclusive criteria according to Cochrane methods. Meta-analyses were conducted using Rev Man V.5.3 software. RESULTS: Five trials involving 568 subjects were included. Meta-analysis showed that participants receiving acupuncture had better outcomes than those receiving nimodipine with greater clinical efficacy rates (odds ratio (OR) 1.78, 95% CI 1.19 to 2.65; p<0.01), mini-mental state examination (MMSE) scores (mean difference (MD) 0.99, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.28; p<0.01), and picture recognition score (MD 2.12, 95% CI 1.48 to 2.75; p<0.01). Meta-analysis also showed acupuncture in conjunction with nimodipine significantly improved MMSE scores (MD 1.09, 95% CI 0.29 to 1.89; p<0.01) compared to nimodipine alone. Three trials reported adverse events. Methodological quality of the included studies was judged to be generally poor. CONCLUSIONS: Acupuncture appears effective for AMCI when used as an alternative or adjunctive treatment; however, caution must be exercised given the low methodological quality of included trials. Further, more rigorously designed studies are needed.

The ethanolic extract of the Eclipta prostrata L. ameliorates the cognitive impairment in mice induced by scopolamine.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Eclipta prostrata L. (Asteraceae) has been prescribed for whole body nourishment and nervine tonic in Asia. However, the effects of E. prostrata in learning and memory have not been fully explored. AIM OF THE STUDY: To scientifically elucidate the effects of E. prostrata on cognitive functions, we examined whether E. prostrata could ameliorate a cholinergic blockade-induced memory impairment, and we also investigated the effects of E. prostrata on the synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Memory impairment was induced by scopolamine, a cholinergic muscarinic receptor antagonist. The anti-amnesic effects of the ethanolic extract of Eclipta prostrata L. (EEEP) were measured in mice by the passive avoidance, Y-maze and Morris water maze tasks. To test the effects of EEEP on synaptic plasticity, we measured long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. We also studied several signaling molecules related to learning and memory, such as phosphorylated protein kinase B (Akt) or phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß). RESULTS: In the passive avoidance task, EEEP (50 or 100mg/kg, p.o.) significantly ameliorated the shortened step-through latency induced by scopolamine. EEEP (100mg/kg, p.o.) also showed significant increase in alternation behavior during the Y-maze task. In the Morris water maze task, scopolamine-induced a decrease in both the swimming time within the target zone and the number of crossings where the platform had been placed were significantly reversed by EEEP (50 or 100mg/kg, p.o.). Moreover, EEEP (100µg/ml) significantly enhanced hippocampal LTP without affecting basal synaptic transmission. The administration of EEEP (100mg/kg) increased the phosphorylation levels of Akt and GSK-3ß in the hippocampal region. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that EEEP has memory-ameliorating activity against scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment and facilitates LTP in the hippocampus. This could be, at least in part, mediated by the activation of the Akt-GSK-3ß signaling pathway.

Taoist Tai Chi® and Memory Intervention for Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment.

OBJECTIVE: It was hypothesized that a combined Taoist Tai Chi (TTC) and a memory intervention program (MIP) would be superior to a MIP alone in improving everyday memory behaviors in individuals with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). A secondary hypothesis was that TTC would improve cognition, self-reported health status, gait, and balance. METHOD: A total of 48 individuals were randomly assigned to take part in MIP + TTC or MIP alone. The TTC intervention consisted of twenty 90 min sessions. Outcome measures were given at baseline, and after 10 and 22 weeks. RESULTS: Both groups significantly increased their memory strategy knowledge and use, ratings of physical health, processing speed, everyday memory, and visual attention. No preferential benefit was found for individuals in the MIP + TTC group on cognition, gait, or balance measures. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to expectations, TTC exercise did not specifically improve cognition or physical mobility. Explanations for null findings are explored.

A hypnotic analogue of clinical confabulation.

Confabulation-fabricated or distorted memories about oneself-occurs in many disorders, but there is no reliable technique for investigating it in the laboratory. The authors used hypnosis to model clinical confabulation by giving subjects a suggestion for either (a) amnesia for everything that had happened since they started university, (b) amnesia for university plus an instruction to fill in memory gaps, or (c) confusion about the temporal order of university events. They then indexed different types of memory on a confabulation battery. The amnesia suggestion produced the most confabulation, especially for personal semantic information. Notably, subjects confabulated by making temporal confusions. The authors discuss the theoretical implications of this first attempt to model clinical confabulation and the potential utility of such analogues.

A preconscious neural mechanism of hypnotically altered colors: a double case study.

Hypnotic suggestions may change the perceived color of objects. Given that chromatic stimulus information is processed rapidly and automatically by the visual system, how can hypnotic suggestions affect perceived colors in a seemingly immediate fashion? We studied the mechanisms of such color alterations by measuring electroencephalography in two highly suggestible participants as they perceived briefly presented visual shapes under posthypnotic color alternation suggestions such as "all the squares are blue". One participant consistently reported seeing the suggested colors. Her reports correlated with enhanced evoked upper beta-band activity (22 Hz) 70-120 ms after stimulus in response to the shapes mentioned in the suggestion. This effect was not observed in a control condition where the participants merely tried to simulate the effects of the suggestion on behavior. The second participant neither reported color alterations nor showed the evoked beta activity, although her subjective experience and event-related potentials were changed by the suggestions. The results indicate a preconscious mechanism that first compares early visual input with a memory representation of the suggestion and consequently triggers the color alteration process in response to the objects specified by the suggestion. Conscious color experience is not purely the result of bottom-up processing but it can be modulated, at least in some individuals, by top-down factors such as hypnotic suggestions.

Beneficial effects of Brassica juncea on cognitive functions in rats.

UNLABELLED: CONTEXT. Brassica juncea (BJ; Linnaeus) Czern & Coss (Brassicaceae), commonly known as Indian mustard, are enriched in redox-active polyphenols with antidiabetic activities. Diverse other health benefits of this edible plant have been described in classical Ayurvedic texts. OBJECTIVE: The reported experiments were designed to assess therapeutic potential of a methanol extract of BJ leaves for treatment of cognitive disorders associated with diabetes or caused by central cholinergic dysfunctions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Elevated plus-maze and active- and passive-avoidance tests were used to assess anti-amnesic potentials of BJ (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg/day, p.o., for 10 days) in alloxan diabetic or scopolamine-challenged rats. Treatment effects on brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were quantified in behavioral tested animals. RESULTS: Anti-amnesic efficacy of all three tested BJ doses against scopolamine-induced amnesia was almost equal in all behavioral tests. Such efficacy of the extract in diabetic rats was increased always with its increasing doses. All treatments of BJ dose dependently decreased the elevated level of AChE, and significantly increased the SOD and CAT levels in brain homogenates of scopolamine-challenged and diabetic rats. Minimal effective oral daily doses of BJ in all tests were 100 mg/kg/day for 10 consecutive days. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Our observation indicates that BJ could be a therapeutic option for treatment of cognitive disorders associated with diabetes, or caused by cholinergic deficit and brain oxidative status. They also indicate that the bioactive constituents or mode of actions involved in observed effects of the extract in scopolamine-challenged or diabetic rats are most probably not the same.

Intact learning of new relations in amnesia as achieved through unitization.

Hippocampal amnesia is defined by deficits in the binding of relations among items--a deficit captured by the transverse patterning (TP) task. Unitization is a processing mechanism that may allow amnesic patients to compensate for relational memory deficits. Amnesic patient D.A. demonstrated intact TP, and performance was maintained 1 month following training. Successful acquisition of relations occurred only when D.A. fused or integrated objects into a unified representation. D.A. did not acquire relations when he did not generate such integrated scenarios, and acquisition of relations was slowed when integration had to occur for novel stimuli. Amnesic patients K.C. and R.F.R. were tested to provide comparative data; K.C. and R.F.R. did not benefit from unitization, perhaps due to additional cortical damage. We propose that unitization requires visual imagery of multiple items that are fused/integrated; through the benefit of extended on-line maintenance, this fused representation is anchored to existing representations in semantic memory.

The impairment of recollection in functional amnesic states.

INTRODUCTION: Functional amnesia refers to various forms of amnesia, which have no direct organic brain basis. Psychological stress and trauma were etiologically linked to its development across various cultures. METHODS: We have studied several patients with functional amnesia, employing neuropsychological and neuroimaging methods. Herein we provide a review of the current understanding of the phenomenology, neuropsychology and neurobiology of functional amnesia, which we illustrate by reference to five own case descriptions and other cases presented in the literature. RESULTS: Functional amnesia is mostly of retrograde nature and presents in the form of a memory blockade or repression to recollect episodic-autobiographical events, which may cover the whole past life. Sometimes, the recollection impairment is localized to certain time epochs. In comparison to functional retrograde amnesia, functional isolated anterograde amnesia is much rarer and data on its neurobiology are scant. In patients with functional amnesia with pronounced retrograde episodic-autobiographical memory impairments, we identified changes in brain metabolism, above all reductions in the temporo-frontal regions of the right hemisphere. Recently, even subtle structural changes in the white matter of the (right) frontal cortex were described in functional retrograde amnesia by other researchers. CONCLUSIONS: The disruption in recollection in functional amnesia is often accompanied by changes in personality dimensions, pertaining to cognition (self-related processing, theory of mind), autonoetic consciousness and affectivity. This suggests that functional amnesia is a multifaceted condition. We hypothesize that the recollection deficit in functional retrograde amnesia primarily reflects a desynchronization between a frontal lobe system, important for autonoetic consciousness, and a temporo-amygdalar system, important for evaluation and emotions. Despite assumptions that functional amnesia can always be reversed, several cases of functional amnesia were found to follow a chronic course, suggesting a need for longitudinal prospective studies to quantify possible global cognitive deterioration over time and its neural underpinnings.

Ameliorating effect of lyophilized extract of Butea frondosa leaves on scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats.

CONTEXT: Butea frondosa (BF) Roxb. & Koen. (syn. B. monosperma Lam.) (Fabaceae) leaves have been used in folklore medicine for the treatment of diabetes, conjunctivitis, gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous system disorders such as anxiety, amnesia, etc. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of lyophilized hydroalcoholic extract of BF leaves (BFLE) at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o., for its memory enhancing activity against scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Antiamnesic effect of the BFLE was evaluated using Morris water maze and object recognition test models. The effect of BFLE on acetylcholinesterase activity and malondialdehyde and glutathione levels were also evaluated in brain homogenate. RESULT: BFLE ameliorates scopolamine-induced amnesia in both the models with maximum effect at 400 mg/kg. BFLE (400 mg/kg) decreased escape latency and increased time spent in target quadrant (24.2 and 42.5 s, respectively) in comparison to scopolamine (82 and 18.2 s, respectively) in the Morris water maze task. In the object recognition test, BFLE produced significant increase in ability to discriminate between novel and familiar objects. The highest investigated dose of BFLE (400 mg/kg), produced a significant decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity and malondialdehyde levels, and improves glutathione levels in comparison to scopolamine. Moreover, this effect of BFLE at 400 mg/kg was comparable to that of standard, donepezil. CONCLUSION: BFLE exhibited significant antiamnesic activity in rats thereby validating its folklore use.

Imagining the present: amnesia may impair descriptions of the present as well as of the future and the past.

Recent evidence suggests that in some patients with amnesia the capacity to imagine the future is impaired in parallel with the capacity to remember the past. This paper asks whether descriptions of the present may be similarly affected. We recruited 7 patients with amnesic syndromes of varying aetiologies who were matched for age, sex and education with 7 control participants. Patients showed no deficits on subjective measures of visual imagery. They were impaired by comparison with controls on measures of imagination and future thinking. However there was an even more marked impairment on tasks requiring them to give descriptions of their current experience. Potential explanations include effects of amnesia on narrative construction or on the texture of experience itself, and the confounding influence of cognitive impairments outside the memory domain. We conclude that tasks requiring descriptions of current experience provide a valuable control condition in studies examining the relationship between memory and imagination.

The hippocampus plays a role in the recognition of visual scenes presented at behaviorally relevant points in time: evidence from amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and healthy controls.

When people perform an attentionally demanding target task at fixation, they also encode the surrounding visual environment, which serves as a context of the task. Here, we examined the role of the hippocampus in memory for target and context. Thirty-five patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and 35 healthy controls matched for age, gender, and education participated in the study. Participants completed visual letter detection and auditory tone discrimination target tasks, while also viewing a series of briefly presented urban and natural scenes. For the measurement of hippocampal and cerebral cortical volume, we utilized the FreeSurfer protocol using a Siemens Trio 3 T scanner. Before the quantification of brain volumes, hippocampal atrophy was confirmed by visual inspection in each patient. Results revealed intact letter recall and tone discrimination performances in aMCI patients, whereas they showed severe impairments in the recognition of scenes presented together with the targets. Patients with aMCI showed bilaterally reduced hippocampal volumes, but intact cortical volume, as compared with the controls. In controls and in the whole sample, hippocampal volume was positively associated with scene recognition when a target task was present. This relationship was observed in both visual and auditory conditions. Scene recognition and target tasks were not associated with executive functions. These results suggest that the hippocampus plays an essential role in the formation of memory traces of the visual environment when people concurrently perform a target task at behaviorally relevant points in time.

Using pictures and words to understand recognition memory deterioration in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: a review.

Difficulty recognizing previously encountered stimuli is one of the earliest signs of incipient Alzheimer's disease (AD). Work over the last 10 years has focused on how patients with AD and those in the prodromal stage of amnestic mild cognitive impairment make recognition decisions for visual and verbal stimuli. Interestingly, both groups of patients demonstrate markedly better memory for pictures over words, to a degree that is significantly greater in magnitude than their healthy older counterparts. Understanding this phenomenon not only helps to conceptualize how memory breaks down in AD, but also potentially provides the basis for future interventions. This review critically examines recent recognition memory work using pictures and words in the context of the dual-process theory of recognition and current hypotheses of cognitive breakdown in the course of very early AD.

Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation.

The relationship between a reported history of trauma and dissociative symptoms has been explained in 2 conflicting ways. Pathological dissociation has been conceptualized as a response to antecedent traumatic stress and/or severe psychological adversity. Others have proposed that dissociation makes individuals prone to fantasy, thereby engendering confabulated memories of trauma. We examine data related to a series of 8 contrasting predictions based on the trauma model and the fantasy model of dissociation. In keeping with the trauma model, the relationship between trauma and dissociation was consistent and moderate in strength, and remained significant when objective measures of trauma were used. Dissociation was temporally related to trauma and trauma treatment, and was predictive of trauma history when fantasy proneness was controlled. Dissociation was not reliably associated with suggestibility, nor was there evidence for the fantasy model prediction of greater inaccuracy of recovered memory. Instead, dissociation was positively related to a history of trauma memory recovery and negatively related to the more general measures of narrative cohesion. Research also supports the trauma theory of dissociation as a regulatory response to fear or other extreme emotion with measurable biological correlates. We conclude, on the basis of evidence related to these 8 predictions, that there is strong empirical support for the hypothesis that trauma causes dissociation, and that dissociation remains related to trauma history when fantasy proneness is controlled. We find little support for the hypothesis that the dissociation-trauma relationship is due to fantasy proneness or confabulated memories of trauma.

Preliminary study of relationships between hypnotic susceptibility and personality disorder functioning styles in healthy volunteers and personality disorder patients.

BACKGROUND: Hypnotic susceptibility is one of the stable characteristics of individuals, but not closely related to the personality traits such as those measured by the five-factor model in the general population. Whether it is related to the personality disorder functioning styles remains unanswered. METHODS: In 77 patients with personality disorders and 154 healthy volunteers, we administered the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form C (SHSSC) and the Parker Personality Measure (PERM) tests. RESULTS: Patients with personality disorders showed higher passing rates on SHSSC Dream and Posthypnotic Amnesia items. No significant correlation was found in healthy volunteers. In the patients however, SHSSC Taste hallucination (ß=0.26) and Anosmia to Ammonia (ß=-0.23) were significantly correlated with the PERM Borderline style; SHSSC Posthypnotic Amnesia was correlated with the PERM Schizoid style (ß=0.25) but negatively the PERM Narcissistic style (ß=-0.23). CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide limited evidence that could help to understand the abnormal cognitions in personality disorders, such as their hallucination and memory distortions.

Dissociation in hysteria and hypnosis: evidence from cognitive neuroscience.

Jean-Martin Charcot proposed the radical hypothesis that similar brain processes were responsible for the unexplained neurological symptoms of 'hysteria', now typically diagnosed as 'conversion disorder' or 'dissociative (conversion) disorder', and the temporary effects of hypnosis. While this idea has been largely ignored, recent cognitive neuroscience studies indicate that (i) hypnotisability traits are associated with a tendency to develop dissociative symptoms in the sensorimotor domain; (ii) dissociative symptoms can be modelled with suggestions in highly hypnotisable subjects; and (iii) hypnotic phenomena engage brain processes similar to those seen in patients with symptoms of hysteria. One clear theme to emerge from the findings is that 'symptom' presentation, whether clinically diagnosed or simulated using hypnosis, is associated with increases in prefrontal cortex activity suggesting that intervention by the executive system in both automatic and voluntary cognitive processing is common to both hysteria and hypnosis. Nevertheless, while the recent literature provides some compelling leads into the understanding of these phenomena, the field still lacks well controlled systematically designed studies to give a clear insight into the neurocognitive processes underlying dissociation in both hysteria and hypnosis. The aim of this review is to provide an agenda for future research.