Historical perspective of brucellosis: a microbiological and epidemiological overview.

The historical process of brucellosis extends back to humankind's first contact with animals. Although brucellosis is a sporadic disease observed in animals in certain regions of the world, it is an important disease in humans that can affect many organs and systems due to the consumption of contaminated milk or milk products. Studies have shown that the presence of Brucella dates back to 60 million years ago. In 450 BC, Hippocrates described a disease similar to brucellosis. Since Hippocrates' time, brucellosis has been characterized by fever. Our aim is to investigate selfless work undertaken by scientists on the epidemiology, diagnosis and clinical findings of brucellosis until today, and to gain a historical perspective about the disease that is as old as human history, still has importance today, causes economic losses in treated animals and harms human health.

[Paleopathology of Herculaneum's population (79 D.C.)]. / Aspetti di paleopatologia della popolazione di Ercolano (79 D.C.).

In 1982, some occasional excavations in the area corresponding to the ancient beach of Ercolano brought to light the rests of around 250 individuals, victims of the eruption of the Vesuvius. This exceptional recovery constitutes an essential patrimony for the reconstruction of the paleobiology and the paleopathology of the human populations in Roman epoch, in relationship not only to the style of life but also to the social and economic status. Notwithstanding the bone alterations due to the exposition to high temperature, the human remains present traces of illness. Among these we find rheumatic pathologies and arthrosis of the vertebral column. The high frequency of occupational markers (enthesopaties and sindesmopaties) suggests that the most part of the population (juveniles included) exercised hand work. Among the infectious pathologies we report cases of the tuberculosis and brucellosis.

[Contribution of paleopathology to defining the pathocoenosis of infectious diseases (Part one)]. / Apporti della paleopatologia alla definizione della patocenosi delle malattie infettive (prima parte).

Studying the remains of mummies obtained by archaeological research may provide key information concerning historical pathocoenosis. Paleopathology makes it possible to recognise, characterise and connect different features involved in human pathocoenosis, such as epidemiology, in a historical perspective, and cultural development, via the introduction of new livestock farming techniques and agriculture in general. Several distinct pathologies may produce direct and indirect changes in the skeleton of affected individuals. Therefore bone remains represent very important sources of information to study such diseases. Changes related to trauma and nutrition deficiency as well as secondary signs, induced by tuberculosis, brucellosis, leprosy, syphilis, malaria, periostitis and aspecific osteomyelitis, persist in bones. In addition, other diseases may cause indirect alterations and subsequent secondary bone in the skeleton via different mechanisms. A secondary bone dimorphism may be induced by poliomyelitis. Aspecific lesions may arise in a skeletal bone and then cause secondary alterations in near-bone segments. Reviewing studies of paleopathologic research found in the literature, we emphasize the relationship between the appearance of major infectious diseases and the development of human activities; whereas it is clear that the introduction of livestock farming had a key role in the pathocoenosis of distinct infections such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and leprosy, some doubts and uncertainty remain in relation to the origin of others with epidemiologically important pathologies, such as syphilis.

Bacteria in two-millennia-old cheese, and related epizoonoses in Roman populations.

A tremendous volcanic eruption destroyed all the life around Mount Vesuvius during the night between 24 and 25 August, 79 AD. Two famous towns, Pompeii and Herculaneum, were completely buried under volcanic products. At Herculaneum, about 25m of volcanic mud killed about 250 people who had fled to the beaches in an attempt to escape (Bisel, S. C.,Rivista di Studi Pompeiani, 1, 123-124, 1987). An anthropological examination of the skeletons of these "fugitives" reveals the bone lesions typical of brucellosis in 17.4% of adults (Capasso, L., International Journal of Osteoarchaelogy, 9, 277-288, 1999). This very high incidence of brucellosis was theoretically linked to the consumption of ovine milk and its derivates, which is also indicated by both literary and figurative sources. A single carbonized cheese was found in Herculaneum; its analysis clearly reveals the excellent state of preservation of the milk curds. For the first time, we demonstrate the presence of a variety of bacteria, possibly Lactobacillus, that also includes cocco-like forms that seem to be morphologically and dimensionally consistent with Brucella. The long interval spent by the organic remains under the volcanic mud and high temperatures they suffered preclude the possibility of identifying the bacteria through molecular methods.

Florence Nightingale. Her Crimean fever and chronic illness.

Florence Nightingale's Crimean fever and chronic illness have intrigued historians for more than a century and a half. The purpose of this article is threefold: (a) to discuss the facts that point to the cause of Nightingale's Crimean fever as brucellosis, (b) to show that her debilitating illness for 32 years (1855-1887) was compatible with the specific form of chronic brucellosis, and (c) to present new evidence that she was still having severe symptoms in December 1887, when it was previously felt that she had no severe symptoms after 1870.