Unveiling biological activities of biosynthesized starch/silver-selenium nanocomposite using Cladosporium cladosporioides CBS 174.62.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Microbial cells capability to tolerate the effect of various antimicrobial classes represent a major worldwide health concern. The flexible and multi-components nanocomposites have enhanced physicochemical characters with several improved properties. Thus, different biological activities of biosynthesized starch/silver-selenium nanocomposite (St/Ag-Se NC) were assessed. METHODOLOGY: The St/Ag-Se NC was biosynthesized using Cladosporium cladosporioides CBS 174.62 (C. cladosporioides) strain. The shape and average particle size were investigated using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM), respectively. On the other hand, the St/Ag-Se NC effect on two cancer cell lines and red blood cells (RBCs) was evaluated and its hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenging effect was assessed. Moreover, its effects on various microbial species in both planktonic and biofilm growth forms were examined. RESULTS: The St/Ag-Se NC was successfully biosynthesized with oval and spherical shape and a mean particle diameter of 67.87 nm as confirmed by the HR-TEM analysis. St/Ag-Se NC showed promising anticancer activity toward human colorectal carcinoma (HCT-116) and human breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines where IC50 were 21.37 and 19.98 µg/ml, respectively. Similarly, little effect on RBCs was observed with low nanocomposite concentration. As well, the highest nanocomposite H2O2 scavenging activity (42.84%) was recorded at a concentration of 2 mg/ml. Additionally, Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) ATCC 12,228 and Candida albicans (C. albicans) ATCC 10,231 were the highly affected bacterial and fungal strains with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 18.75 and 50 µg/ml, respectively. Moreover, the noticeable effect of St/Ag-Se NC on microbial biofilm was concentration dependent. A high biofilm suppression percentage, 87.5% and 68.05%, were recorded with S. epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) when exposed to 1 mg/ml and 0.5 mg/ml, respectively. CONCLUSION: The biosynthesized St/Ag-Se NC showed excellent antioxidant activity, haemocompatibility, and anti-proliferative effect at low concentrations. Also, it exhibited promising antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities.

Antifungal mechanism of rose, mustard, and their blended essential oils against Cladosporium allicinum isolated from Xinjiang naan and its storage application.

AIMS: To reveal the inhibition mechanism of rose, mustard, and blended essential oils against Cladosporium allicinum isolated from Xinjiang naan, and investigate the effect of the three essential oils on oxidative damage and energy metabolism. METHODS AND RESULTS: Rose and mustard essential oils significantly inhibited mycelial growth and spore viability in a dose-dependent relationship. After essential oil treatment, the cell membrane permeability was altered, and significant leakage of intracellular proteins and nucleic acids occurred. SEM observations further confirmed the disruption of cell structure. ROS, MDA, and SOD measurements indicated that essential oil treatment induced a redox imbalance in C. allicinum, leading to cell death. As for energy metabolism, essential oil treatment significantly reduced Na+K+-ATPase, Ca2+Mg2+-ATPase, MDH activity, and CA content, impairing metabolic functions. Finally, storage experiments showed that all three essential oils ensured better preservation of naan, with mustard essential oil having the best antifungal effect. CONCLUSIONS: Rose and mustard essential oils and their blends can inhibit C. allicinum at multiple targets and pathways, destroying cell morphological structure and disrupting metabolic processes.

Co-exposure to highly allergenic airborne pollen and fungal spores in Europe.

The study is aimed at determining the potential spatiotemporal risk of the co-occurrence of airborne pollen and fungal spores high concentrations in different bio-climatic zones in Europe. Birch, grass, mugwort, ragweed, olive pollen and Alternaria and Cladosporium fungal spores were investigated at 16 sites in Europe, in 2005-2019. In Central and northern Europe, pollen and fungal spore seasons mainly overlap in June and July, while in South Europe, the highest pollen concentrations occur frequently outside of the spore seasons. In the coldest climate, no allergy thresholds were exceeded simultaneously by two spore or pollen taxa, while in the warmest climate most of the days with at least two pollen taxa exceeding threshold values were observed. The annual air temperature amplitude seems to be the main bioclimatic factor influencing the accumulation of days in which Alternaria and Cladosporium spores simultaneously exceed allergy thresholds. The phenomenon of co-occurrence of airborne allergen concentrations gets increasingly common in Europe and is proposed to be present on other continents, especially in temperate climate.

Highly effective biosorption capacity of Cladosporium sp. strain F1 to lead phosphate mineral and perovskite solar cell PbI2.

Fungus Cladosporium sp. strain F1 showed highly effective biosorption capacity to lead phosphate mineral and perovskite solar cells lead iodide compared to other fungi Aspergillus niger VKMF-1119 and Mucor ramannianus R-56. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses shows that Cladosporium sp. strain F1, which previously showed high biosorption capacity to uranium phosphate nanorods and nanoplates, can accumulate lead phosphate mineral and lead iodide on the fungal hyphae surface in large amounts under a wide range of pH conditions, while A. niger VKMF-1119 and M. ramannianus R-56 adsorbed small amounts of minerals. After biosorption of lead iodide minerals on Cladosporium sp. strain F1, aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide (50%) at pH 2 (70 °C) released the mineral more than 99%. Based on the fungal surface analyses, hydrophobic properties on the surfaces of Cladosporium sp. strain F1 could affect the higher biosorption capacity of strain F1 to lead phosphate mineral and lead iodide as compared to other tested fungi. Cladosporium sp. strain F1 may be the novel biosorbents to remediate the phosphate rich environment and to recover lead from perovskite solar cells lead iodide.

Production of Minor Ginsenosides from Panax notoginseng Flowers by Cladosporium xylophilum.

Panax notoginseng flowers have the highest content of saponins compared to the other parts of Panax notoginseng, but minor ginsenosides have higher pharmacological activity than the main natural ginsenosides. Therefore, this study focused on the transformation of the main ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides using the fungus of Cladosporium xylophilum isolated from soil. The main ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, and Rc and the notoginsenoside Fa in Panax notoginseng flowers were transformed into the ginsenosides F2 and Rd2, the notoginsenosides Fd and Fe, and the ginsenoside R7; the conversion rates were 100, 100, 100, 88.5, and 100%, respectively. The transformation products were studied by TLC, HPLC, and MS analyses, and the biotransformation pathways of the major ginsenosides were proposed. In addition, the purified enzyme of the fungus was prepared with the molecular weight of 66.4 kDa. The transformation of the monomer ginsenosides by the crude enzyme is consistent with that by the fungus. Additionally, three saponins were isolated from the transformation products and identified as the ginsenoside Rd2 and the notoginsenosides Fe and Fd by NMR and MS analyses. This study provided a unique and powerful microbial strain for efficiently transformating major ginsenosides in P. notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides, which will help raise the functional and economic value of the P. notoginseng flower.

Assessing some Cladosporium species in the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon for treating oil contamination.

AIM: Biodegradation is a cost-effective and eco-friendly treatment for oil-contaminated materials using microorganisms. Bacteria and fungi can degrade petroleum by using it as an energy source and this may provide an enormous scope to remediate soils contaminated with petroleum and oil. This study aimed to assess the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by certain Cladosporium species. METHODS AND RESULTS: By using traditional and spectroscopic assessment analysis, qualitative screening was carried out using Cladosporium spores isolated from air and cultured on mineral salt medium supplemented with petroleum hydrocarbon as the sole carbon source, followed by quantitative assessment using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Nineteen Cladosporium strains from a total of 212 isolates exhibited remarkable capability to degrade petroleum hydrocarbon, representing four species (C. herbarum, C. macrocarpum, C. sphaerospermum, and C. cladosporioides). The results were expressed in terms of biodegradation percentage and optical density of hydrocarbon using a standard calibration curve. The highest reduction of petroleum hydrocarbon was observed with five Cladosporium strains belonging to two species (C. sphaerospermum and C. cladosporioides). CONCLUSION: This study succeeded in isolating several Cladosporium strains (from the air) with a high ability to degrade crude oil that can be used as biological agents to control petroleum pollution in soils and seas. The addition of a surfactant (Tween 80) enhanced the degradation of crude oil reaching a final concentration of 0.4%. Based on these results, the present study could indicate some unique prospects in the field of bioremediation and biodegradation of petroleum-contaminated soil. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY: This study gives unique prospects in the field of bioremediation and biodegradation of petroleum-contaminated soil.

Phytochemical Screening and Bioactivity Studies of Endophytes Cladosporium sp. Isolated from the Endangered Plant Vateria Indica Using In Silico and In Vitro Analysis.

Vateria indica is persistent tree used in Unani sources for the medication and classified as critically endangered. Thus, endophytes for alternative methods to explore these endangered Plants having rich source pharmaceuticals' active molecules for drug development and production. Endophytes comprises unexplored microbes as a potential source of rich pharmaceutically bioactive compounds attributable to their relationship with the host. In the current study, we have isolated endophyte fungi Cladosporium from the plant Vateria indica and performed phytochemical screening of its ethanolic extract to detect the phytochemicals using thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), UV-visible spectrophotometry (UV-VIS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of an anticancer compound hydroxymethyl colchicine, antioxidant compound benzoic acid, and antimicrobial 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-5-nitro in endophyte fungal extract of plant Vateria indica. Moreover, in silico analysis of bioactive compounds identified by GC-MS analysis using the Autodock Vina and SwissADME confirmed excellent anticancer activity methanone, [4-amino-2-[(phenylmethyl) amino]-5-thiazolyl] (4-fluorophenyl)- and hydroxymethyl colchicine against 6VO4 (Bfl-1 protein) as per Lipinski rule. Furthermore, we also demonstrated the excellent antioxidant of endophytic extract compared to plant extract by DPPH and ABTS assay, as well as antimicrobial activity against both Gram (+ ve) and Gram (- ve) bacteria. Moreover, the endophytic extract also showed its antimitotic activity with a mitotic index of 65.32, greater than the plant extract of 32.56 at 10 mg/ml. Thus endophytic fungi Cladosporium species isolated from plant Vateria indica might be used as a potential source for phytochemical anticancer hydroxymethyl colchicine, an antioxidant benzoic acid, and antimicrobial 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-5-nitro.

Endophytic fungus Cladosporium tenuissimum DF11, an efficient inducer of tanshinone biosynthesis in Salvia miltiorrhiza roots.

Salvia miltiorrhiza is a traditional medicinal plant mainly used for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease treatment. Tanshinones are the main bioactive constituents of S. miltiorrhiza, which mainly accumulate around its root periderm tissue. Endophytic fungi are important bioelicitors or probiotics that can promote the accumulation of secondary metabolites and sustainable cultivation of medicinal plants. Among them, endophytic Cladosporium spp., possessing a variety of biotransformation and metabolic abilities, is an ideal elicitor source. Here, we used a gnotobiotic system to investigate the effects of the endophytic fungus Cladosporium tenuissimum DF11 on tanshinone biosynthesis in S. miltiorrhiza roots. The results showed that C. tenuissimum DF11 mainly colonizes the intercellular space of the root tissues and promotes tanshinone biosynthesis and accumulation in S. miltiorrhiza roots by upregulating the expression of the genes encoding for key enzymes HMGR, DXS, DXR, GGPPS, CPS, KSL and CYP76AH1 of the tanshinone biosynthesis pathway. The expression levels of almost all genes encoding for key enzymes reached the response peak in the first or second week after DF11 colonization. Taken together, the endophytic fungus C. tenuissimum DF11 could promote secondary metabolite accumulation in S. miltiorrhiza roots. These results indicate that DF11 will be a potential biofertilizer fungus to regulate and stabilize the quality of cultivated S. miltiorrhiza medicinal materials.

Emericella nidulans (4DP5), Cladosporium herbarum (7DF12) and Bacillus subtilis improve the nutritional value of palm kernel cake (PKC) through solid-state fermentation (SSF)

Aims@#Palm kernel cake (PKC) is a high-protein, high-energy food that is widely utilized in the animal feed business. However, the high fibre and limited amino acid content of untreated PKC were the main issues for it to be used as animal feed, particularly in non-ruminants. To improve the quality of PKC, this study combined the use of solid-state fermentation (SSF) and consortia of fungi and bacteria to treat the PKC.@*Methodology and results@#Two fungi, Emericella nidulans (4DP5) and Cladosporium herbarum (7DF12) and three strains of bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, which were active mannanase producers, were used in different combinations to reduce the hemicellulose content and improve the crude protein content of PKC in a lab-scale solid-state fermentation. PKC inoculated separately with five types of mixed culture treatments were allowed to ferment. The fermentation conditions were 20% inoculum (w/v), 85-92% humidity, pH 7.0 and PKC particle size 0.8 mm. PKC treatments with two fungi, E. nidulans (4DP5) and C. herbarum (7DF12), as well as a fungus-bacterium combination, E. nidulans (4DP5) and B. subtilis, outperformed the other three treatments. The crude protein levels were increased by 3.34% and 1.86%, respectively, due to these treatments. Furthermore, the level of aflatoxins produced increased marginally but remained within the permissible limits.@*Conclusion, significance and impact of study@#The treated PKC has more sugar and crude protein and less than 20 parts per billion (ppb) of aflatoxin, making it appropriate for animal consumption. The SSF technique of combining fungi and Bacilli enhanced the nutritional and market value of PKC substantially, which can be upscaled.

Layers of Uranium Phosphate Nanorods and Nanoplates Encrusted on Fungus Cladosporium sp. Strain F1 Hyphae.

The hyphae of Cladosporium sp. strain F1 (CFGR 2020-301-00084) were heavily encrusted with pre-synthesized uranium phosphate minerals under a wide range of pH conditions. SEM and TEM images showed that nanorods and nanoplates of uranium phosphate minerals at pH 4 and 5 and at pH 6, 7, and 8, respectively, were tightly adsorbed along the hyphae of Cladosporium sp. strain F1, while only a few uranium phosphate minerals were observed on the hyphae of Aspergillus niger VKMF 1119. Based on the physical mobility and chemical stability of uranium phosphate minerals under in situ oxidizing environmental conditions, the application of Cladosporium sp. strain F1 has potential as a novel strategy for the remediation of uranium contamination in sediments and aquifers under a wide range of pH conditions where larger amounts of phosphate are present in the environment.

A new isoflavone glucoside and other compounds from Poiretia bahiana C. Mueller: Chemophenetics, fragmentation pattern and biogenetic implications.

The genus Poiretia belongs to the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family and it encompasses twelve species of flowering plants. The chemistry of this genus is scarcely investigated, although some studies have demonstrated the potential of Poiretia species to produce important bioactive compounds. Herein, we describe the phytochemical investigation of P. bahiana C. Mueller leaves. A new isoflavone glucoside named as 2',4',5'-trimethoxyisoflavone-7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (1), along with six known isoflavones (2-7), two rotenones (8-9), cyclitol 3-O-methyl-chiro-inositol (10), the amino acid proline (11), a mixture of sitosterol (12) and stigmasterol (13), and a mixture of the triterpenes lupeol (14) and ß-amirine (15) were obtained from P. bahiana leaves. The structures were established by extensive analysis of their spectroscopic data, which included 1H NMR, 13C NMR, DEPT, and 2D-NMR (13C1H HETCOR and 13C1H COLOC). Two isoflavones (3 and 5) and two rotenones (8-9) exhibited antifungal activity against the plant pathogenic fungus Cladosporium sphaerospermum. Furthermore, the biogenetic implications of the oxygenation pattern of the B-ring of the isoflavones, and the chemophenetics and fragmentation pattern of the isoflavones and rotenones are discussed.

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Bioremediation Using Native Fungal Isolates and Consortia.

Crude oil spills as a result of natural disasters or extraction and transportation operations are common nowadays. Oil spills have adverse effects on both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and pose a threat to human health. This study have been concerned with studying the capability of six fungal species (Curvularia brachyspora, Penicillium chrysogenum, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Alternaria alternata, and Stemphylium botryosum) and three fungal consortia (FC), FC1 (P. chrysogenum and C. brachyspora), FC2 (S. brevicaulis and S. botryosum), and FC3 (S. brevicaulis, S. botryosum, and C. sphaerospermum), to remediate petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs). Qualitative and quantitative changes in polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and saturated hydrocarbons (SH) mixtures and the patterns of PHs degradation have been examined using HPLC and GC. Studying the GC chromatogram of C. sphaerospermum revealed severe degradation of SHs exhibited by this species, and the normal-paraffin and isoparaffin degradation percentage have been valued 97.19% and 98.88%, respectively. A. alternata has shown the highest significant (at P ˂ 0.05) PAH degradation percent reaching 72.07%; followed by P. chrysogenum, 59.51%. HPLC data have revealed that high-molecular-weight PAH percent/total PAHs decreased significantly from 98.94% in control samples to 68.78% in samples treated with A. alternata. FC1 and FC2 consortia have exhibited the highest significant PH deterioration abilities than did the individual isolates, indicating that these fungal consortia exhibited positive synergistic effects. The study supports the critical idea of the potential PAH and SH biodegradation as a more ecologically acceptable alternative to their chemical degradation.

A diverse member of the fungal Avr4 effector family interacts with de-esterified pectin in plant cell walls to disrupt their integrity.

Effectors are small, secreted proteins that promote pathogen virulence. Although key to microbial infections, unlocking the intrinsic function of effectors remains a challenge. We have previously shown that members of the fungal Avr4 effector family use a carbohydrate-binding module of family 14 (CBM14) to bind chitin in fungal cell walls and protect them from host chitinases during infection. Here, we show that gene duplication in the Avr4 family produced an Avr4-2 paralog with a previously unknown effector function. Specifically, we functionally characterize PfAvr4-2, a paralog of PfAvr4 in the tomato pathogen Pseudocercospora fuligena, and show that although it contains a CBM14 domain, it does not bind chitin or protect fungi against chitinases. Instead, PfAvr4-2 interacts with highly de-esterified pectin in the plant's middle lamellae or primary cell walls and interferes with Ca2+-mediated cross-linking at cell-cell junction zones, thus loosening the plant cell wall structure and synergizing the activity of pathogen secreted endo-polygalacturonases.

[Study on secondary metabolites of endophytic fungus Cladosporium sp. JJM22 hosted in Ceriops tagal].

Nine secondary metabolites(S)-5-hydroxy-4-methylchroman-2-one(1), 4-methoxynaphthalene-1,5-diol(2), 8-methoxynaphthalene-1,7-diol(3), 1,8-dimethoxynaphthalene(4),(2R,4S)-2,3-dihydro-2-methyl-benzopyran-4,5-diol(5),(2R,4R)-3,4-dihydro-4-methoxy-2-methyl-2H-1-benzopyran-5-ol(6), 7-O-α-D-ribosyl-2,3-dihydro-5-hydroxy-2-methyl-chromen-4-one(7),(R)-3-methoxyl-1-(2,6-dihydroxyphenyl)-butan-1-one(8) and helicascolide A(9) were isolated from endophytic fungus Cladosporium sp. JJM22 by using column chromatographies of silica gel and ODS, and semi-preparative HPLC. Their structures were analyzed on the basis of spectroscopic and chemical data, especially NMR and MS. All isolated compounds were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activities by examining the inhibitory activities on nitric oxide(NO) production induced by lipopolysaccharide in mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells in vitro. Compounds 2-4 showed inhibitory activities.

Bioactive cyclohexene derivatives from a mangrove-derived fungus Cladosporium sp. JJM22.

Four new cyclohexene derivatives cladoscyclitols A-D (1-4) and one new ribofuranose phenol derivative 4-O-α-D-ribofuranose-2-pentyl-3-phemethylol (5) were obtained from the EtOAC extract of the mangrove-derived endophytic fungus Cladosporium sp. JJM22. The structures were elucidated by extensive NMR and MS analysis, while the absolute configurations of the stereogenic carbons were established based on quantum-chemical electronic circular dichroism calculations or comparison of the optical rotations with those of related compounds. Compounds 2 and 5 displayed potent inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase with the IC50 values of 2.95 and 2.05 µM, respectively.

Biological Characterization and Antagonist Screening of Cladosporium anthropophilum, a Novel Pathogen Causing Stipe Black Rot on Commercial Medicinal Mushroom, Flammulina filiformis (Agaricomycetes).

We report a new fungal disease, named stipe black rot, in a cultivation factory of Flammulina filiformis (an edible mushroom cultivated worldwide) in China. The pathogen was identified as Cladosporium anthropophilum by phylogenetic analysis and morphology characterization. C. anthropophilum was characterized to mainly infect the stipe bottom and cause stipe blackening and rot, with its optimal mycelial growth conditions consisting of 25°C, pH 7, and carbon and nitrogen sources of soluble starch and sodium nitrate, respectively. Furthermore, inhibitory evaluation showed that hydrogen peroxide silver disinfectant (HPSD) can efficiently inhibit the mycelial growth of C. anthropophilum, followed by the aqueous extracts of garlic and onion. This study identified C. anthropophilum as the pathogen for the new F. filiformis black rot disease and HPSD as an effective antagonist against the pathogen, which facilitates the understanding of fungal diseases and their control in edible mushrooms.

Fungal sensitization and positive fungal culture from sputum in children with asthma are associated with reduced lung function and acute asthma attacks respectively.

BACKGROUND: Sensitization to thermotolerant fungi, including filamentous fungi and Candida albicans, is associated with poor lung function in adults with severe asthma. Data in children are lacking. Environmental exposure to fungi is linked with acute severe asthma attacks, but there are few studies reporting the presence of fungi in the airways during asthma attacks. METHODS: We investigated the association between fungal sensitization and/or positive fungal sputum culture and markers of asthma severity in children with chronic and acute asthma. Sensitization was determined using serum-specific IgE and skin prick testing against a panel of five fungi. Fungal culture was focused towards detection of filamentous fungi from sputum samples. RESULTS: We obtained sensitization data and/or sputum from 175 children: 99 with chronic asthma, 39 with acute asthma and 37 controls. 34.1% of children with chronic asthma were sensitized to thermotolerant fungi compared with no children without asthma (p =< 0.001). These children had worse pre-bronchodilator lung function compared with asthmatics without sensitization including a lower FEV1 /FVC ratio (p < .05). The isolation rate of filamentous fungi from sputum was higher in children with acute compared with chronic asthma. CONCLUSIONS: Fungal sensitization is a feature of children with chronic asthma. Children sensitized to thermotolerant fungi have worse lung function, require more courses of systemic corticosteroids and have greater limitation of activities due to asthma. Asthma attacks in children were associated with the presence of filamentous fungi positive sputum culture. Mechanistic studies are required to establish whether fungi contribute directly to the development of acute asthma.

Loofah immobilized with Cladosporium cladosporioides CEL14 is a potential bioremediating agent for hexavalent chromium in tannery wastewater

Aims@#Chromium salt possesses unique characteristics that render it useful in numerous applications in several industrial processes, especially tanning of animal hides which act as a major source of hexavalent chromium toxicity in environment. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of loofah immobilized Cladosporium cladosporioides CEL14 in remediate tannery wastewater which contains hexavalent chromium. @*Methodology and results@#A total of 18 fungal species were isolated from three different sites of tannery wastewater in Egypt, of which C. cladosporioides CEL14 was the most capable species of chromate remediation with 81% after 7 days of incubation as free cells. The experiments were conducted in minimum salt medium supplemented with 200 ppm chromate in the form of potassium dichromate. Different process parameters studies demonstrated that chromate was completely removed at 30 °C, pH 6, 0.1% malt extract and 0.2% glucose after 7 days of incubation with 20% inoculum size. After that, C. cladosporioides was immobilized on a natural support material (loofah). The removal ability of chromate was enhanced through permanent viable immobilization on loofah pieces, which showing complete removal of chromate within 3 days. The toxicity assessment of treated tannery effluents revealed that 74% of Brassica napus seeds were germinated upon exposure to the treated effluent.@*Conclusion, significance and impact of study@#This study revealed that C. cladosporioides CEL14 isolate has high potential as bioremediating agent against toxic hexavalent chromium. The removal ability of toxic chromate was enhanced through permanent viable immobilization on loofah pieces. This technology is simple, cost effective, efficient and environmentally friendly. The loofah immobilized with C. cladosporioides CEL14 has potential to be applied in wastewater treatment of small-scale tanneries after onsite trials.

Population studies of the wild tomato species Solanum chilense reveal geographically structured major gene-mediated pathogen resistance.

Natural plant populations encounter strong pathogen pressure and defence-associated genes are known to be under selection dependent on the pressure by the pathogens. Here, we use populations of the wild tomato Solanum chilense to investigate natural resistance against Cladosporium fulvum, a well-known ascomycete pathogen of domesticated tomatoes. Host populations used are from distinct geographical origins and share a defined evolutionary history. We show that distinct populations of S. chilense differ in resistance against the pathogen. Screening for major resistance gene-mediated pathogen recognition throughout the whole species showed clear geographical differences between populations and complete loss of pathogen recognition in the south of the species range. In addition, we observed high complexity in a homologues of Cladosporium resistance (Hcr) locus, underlying the recognition of C. fulvum, in central and northern populations. Our findings show that major gene-mediated recognition specificity is diverse in a natural plant-pathosystem. We place major gene resistance in a geographical context that also defined the evolutionary history of that species. Data suggest that the underlying loci are more complex than previously anticipated, with small-scale gene recombination being possibly responsible for maintaining balanced polymorphisms in the populations that experience pathogen pressure.