Socioeconomic and Demographic Factors Influencing Feeding Practices, Morbidity Status, and Dietary Intakes of Children Aged 7-24 Months in Rural Uganda.

The objective of this study was to analyze the nutritional and morbidity patterns of children aged 7-24 months in relationship to household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. Structured questionnaires and repeated 24-hour recalls were used to collect data. Maternal education and age influenced timing of complementary foods, dietary diversity score, meal frequency, and diarrhea incidences (p < .05). This resulted in 53%, 59%, 48%, 43%, and 22% of the study children having inadequate intake of energy, protein, vitamin A, iron, and zinc, respectively. Households need to be empowered to utilize available resources for improving nutrient intake and health among their children.

Effects of zinc supplementation in the prevention of respiratory tract infections and diarrheal disease in Colombian children: A 12-month randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND: Among the preventive strategies for lowering the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and acute diarrhoea episodes, two of the most common diseases in children, zinc supplementation has received special interest. However, there is a need for additional studies that determine the preventive effects of different doses of zinc on URTI and diarrhoeal disease episodes in children. METHODS: In a randomised, triple-blind clinical trial, we evaluated the efficacy of 12 months of daily zinc supplementation in the incidence of URTI and acute diarrhoea in a population of healthy children aged between 6 and 12 months living in Bogota, Colombia. The outcomes analysed were incidence of URTI, acute diarrhoeal disease episodes, and side effects of the interventions. RESULTS: Between 2010 and 2013, a total of 355 children underwent randomisation, with 174 assigned to the zinc supplementation group and 181 to the control group. In the multivariate analyses, having been randomised to the non-supplemented control group (IRR 1.73, 95% CI 1.52-1.97, p < 0.001), and nursery attendance (IRR 1.41, 95% CI 1.07-1.87, p = 0.016) were independently linked to the number of URTI. Likewise, having been randomised to the non-supplemented group (IRR 1.43, 95% CI 1.20-1.71, p < 0.001), and lower socioeconomic status (IRR 1.86, 95% CI 1.11-3.13, p = 0.018) were independently associated to the number of diarrhoeal disease episodes. CONCLUSIONS: Daily supplementation of 5mg of zinc during 12 months significantly decreased the incidence of URTI and diarrhoeal disease episodes in a healthy population of children aged between 6 and 12 months

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Effects of zinc supplementation in the prevention of respiratory tract infections and diarrheal disease in Colombian children: A 12-month randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Among the preventive strategies for lowering the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and acute diarrhoea episodes, two of the most common diseases in children, zinc supplementation has received special interest. However, there is a need for additional studies that determine the preventive effects of different doses of zinc on URTI and diarrhoeal disease episodes in children. METHODS: In a randomised, triple-blind clinical trial, we evaluated the efficacy of 12 months of daily zinc supplementation in the incidence of URTI and acute diarrhoea in a population of healthy children aged between 6 and 12 months living in Bogota, Colombia. The outcomes analysed were incidence of URTI, acute diarrhoeal disease episodes, and side effects of the interventions. RESULTS: Between 2010 and 2013, a total of 355 children underwent randomisation, with 174 assigned to the zinc supplementation group and 181 to the control group. In the multivariate analyses, having been randomised to the non-supplemented control group (IRR 1.73, 95% CI 1.52-1.97, p<0.001), and nursery attendance (IRR 1.41, 95% CI 1.07-1.87, p=0.016) were independently linked to the number of URTI. Likewise, having been randomised to the non-supplemented group (IRR 1.43, 95% CI 1.20-1.71, p<0.001), and lower socioeconomic status (IRR 1.86, 95% CI 1.11-3.13, p=0.018) were independently associated to the number of diarrhoeal disease episodes. CONCLUSIONS: Daily supplementation of 5mg of zinc during 12 months significantly decreased the incidence of URTI and diarrhoeal disease episodes in a healthy population of children aged between 6 and 12 months.

Uso de probióticos y prebióticos en las fórmulas infantiles / Use of probiotics and prebiotics in infant formulas

Actualmente no hay datos suficientes para recomendar la suplementación rutinaria de las fórmulas infantiles con probióticos y/o prebióticos. Sin embargo, la administración de cualquiera de ambos componentes alimentarios de forma aislada o en combinación en los preparados de inicio o de continuación se ha asociado a efectos clínicos beneficiosos más allá de los primeros meses de vida. Entre ellos se incluyen la reducción en el riesgo de infecciones gastrointestinales y su tratamiento, el control de las manifestaciones de atopia, disminución del uso de antibióticos y una menor frecuencia de cólicos o irritabilidad. Además, los diferentes estudios realizados no han mostrado consecuencias nocivas de su consumo. Desde una revisión de las publicaciones más significativas, el presente texto quiere ofrecer una rápida panorá- mica sobre los principales aspectos asistenciales que hoy nos plantea este tema (AU)

Currently there are insufficient data to recommend routine supplementation of infant formula with probiotics and/or prebiotics. However, administration of either food components in isolation or in combination early or follow-on or toddler infant formulas has been associated with clinical benefit beyond the first months of life. Thus, among them, a reduced risk of gastrointestinal infections and their treatment, control of atopy manifestations, decreased antibiotic use and a lower frequency of colic or irritability can be included. Furthermore, different studies have shown no harmful consequences of its consumption. From a review of the most relevant studies, this paper aims to provide a quick overview of the main clinical issues this topic brings up today (AU)

Zinc and Vitamin Supplementation in an Under-5 Indigenous Population of Guatemala: Influence of Lay Health Promoters in Decreasing Incidence of Diarrhea.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition is an urgent problem in the developing world, especially for children under 5 years of age. The article describes the utilization of a standard of practice designed to prevent illness in a malnourished, under-5 indigenous population and reinforced by weekly basic health messages taught by lay community health promoters. METHOD: The two villages were chosen for observation after administration of the standard of care among the Maya-Kíché, the most numerous Mayan group in Guatemala. The standard of practice, 20 mg of daily oral zinc, was administered for 10 days in the home and followed by daily vitamin supplementation that continued throughout the 3 months of the project. All patients received four monthly clinic visits, with one of the village groups receiving weekly health promoter visits. RESULTS: Data evaluated after the quality improvement project showed significant differences in adherence to the zinc regimen (χ(2) = 3.677, p ≤ .05) as well as lower rates of diarrheal illnesses (χ(2) = 5.850, p ≤ .05), with both of these improved in the health promoter group. DISCUSSION: This study suggests that the training and implementation of para-health professionals from the lay community in response to specific health care needs could be considered a best practice in developing countries. IMPLICATIONS: Public health professionals are key to health promoter training and direction, and their importance in the global setting cannot be understated.

Oral zinc and common childhood infections--An update.

Zinc is an essential micronutrient important for growth and for normal function of the immune system. Many children in developing countries have inadequate zinc nutrition. Routine zinc supplementation reduces the risk of respiratory infections and diarrhea, the two leading causes of morbidity and mortality in young children worldwide. In childhood diarrhea oral zinc also reduces illness duration and risk of persistent episodes. Oral zinc is therefore recommended for the treatment of acute diarrhea in young children. The results from the studies that have measured the therapeutic effect of zinc on acute respiratory infections, however, are conflicting. Moreover, the results of therapeutic zinc for childhood malaria also are so far not promising.This paper gives a brief outline of the current evidence from clinical trials on therapeutic effect of oral zinc on childhood respiratory infections, pneumonia and malaria and also of new evidence of the effect on serious bacterial illness in young infants.

N-Acetylcysteine treatment of rotavirus-associated diarrhea in children.

Rotaviruses are the leading cause of severe, acute, and dehydrating diarrhea affecting children under 5 years of age worldwide. Despite an important reduction in rotavirus-caused deaths as a consequence of the rotavirus vaccine, alternative or complementary strategies for preventing or treating rotavirus-associated diarrhea are needed mainly in the poorest countries. We describe the cases of four rotavirus-unvaccinated 12-13-month-old girls and a 5-year-old boy who developed rotavirus-associated diarrhea confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blotting, and immunochemistry analyses. After the first day of diarrheal episodes, three of the five patients were immediately administered oral N-acetylcysteine (NAC) 60 mg/kg daily, divided into three equal doses every 8 hours. The other two patients did not receive NAC and served as controls. Administration of NAC resulted in a decreased number of diarrheal episodes, excretion of fecal rotavirus antigen, and resolution of symptoms after 2 days of treatment. Our results suggest that NAC treatment after the first diarrheal episode could be an efficient strategy for treating rotavirus-affected children and preventing the associated severe life-threatening accompanying dehydration.

'This diarrhoea is not a disease ' local illness concepts and their effects on mothers' health seeking behaviour: a qualitative study, Shuhair, Yemen.

BACKGROUND: Globally, about seven million children under the age of five died in 2011. Local illness concepts are thought to be related to inappropriate health-seeking behaviour, and therefore, lead to child mortality. The aim of this study was to contribute to the definition of common local illness concepts with their effects on health-seeking behaviour for common childhood illnesses. METHODS: A qualitative focus group study was conducted between April 1 and 6, 2013. Participants were drawn purposefully from the vaccination unit at Shuhair Health Centre in Yemen. Four focus group discussions were conducted. The total number of participants was 31 mothers with at least one child under the age of five with a history of fever, diarrhoea, cough, or difficulty breathing during the 14 days preceding the study. Data was collected and analysed using micro-interlocutor analysis. RESULTS: The mean age of the participants was 31 years (SD ± 4). There was remarkable concordance in local illness concepts across the focus groups. During focus group discussions, six local illness concepts (Senoon, lafkha, halib, didan, raqaba, and ayn) were mentioned. Local illness concepts determined the type of treatment. Most of these illnesses were not treated medically. Lafkha, halib, raqaba, and ayn were always classified as "not for medical treatment", whereas senoon and didan as sometimes "not for medical treatment". For medical symptoms, i.e. fever, diarrhoea, cough, and difficulty breathing, medical therapy was usually an option; these were classified as never or sometimes "not for medical treatment". Mothers trust in traditional medicine and believe that it is always beneficial and never harmful. The participants do not disclose traditional medicine use with their doctors because doctors oppose these practices and are not open enough to these types of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Local illness concepts for common child illnesses are widespread, and they determine the type of treatment used. Interventions to improve children's health should use local illness concepts to educate parents. Traditional medicine as a treatment option in primary care should be considered.

Cost of childhood diarrhoea in rural South Africa: exploring cost-effectiveness of universal zinc supplementation.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the cost of diarrhoeal illness in children aged 6-24 months in a rural South African community and to determine the threshold prevalence of stunting at which universal Zn plus vitamin A supplementation (VAZ) would be more cost-effective than vitamin A alone (VA) in preventing diarrhoea. DESIGN: We conducted a cost analysis using primary and secondary data sources. Using simulations we examined incremental costs of VAZ relative to VA while varying stunting prevalence. SETTING: Data on efficacy and societal costs were largely from a South African trial. Secondary data were from local and international published sources. SUBJECTS: The trial included children aged 6-24 months. The secondary data sources were a South African health economics survey and the WHO-CHOICE (CHOosing Interventions that are Cost Effective) database. RESULTS: In the trial, stunted children supplemented with VAZ had 2·04 episodes (95 % CI 1·37, 3·05) of diarrhoea per child-year compared with 3·92 episodes (95 % CI 3·02, 5·09) in the VA arm. Average cost of illness was $Int 7·80 per episode (10th, 90th centile: $Int 0·28, $Int 15·63), assuming a minimum standard of care (oral rehydration and 14 d of therapeutic Zn). In simulation scenarios universal VAZ had low incremental costs or became cost-saving relative to VA when the prevalence of stunting was close to 20 %. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were sensitive to the cost of intervention and coverage levels. CONCLUSIONS: This simulation suggests that universal VAZ would be cost-effective at current levels of stunting in parts of South Africa. This requires further validation under actual programmatic conditions.

A review of enteral strategies in infant short bowel syndrome: evidence-based or NICU culture?

INTRODUCTION: Short bowel syndrome (SBS) is an increasingly common condition encountered across neonatal intensive care units. Improvements in parenteral nutrition (PN), neonatal intensive care and surgical techniques, in addition to an improved understanding of SBS pathophysiology, have contributed in equal parts to the survival of this fragile subset of infants. Prevention of intestinal failure associated liver disease (IFALD) and promotion of intestinal adaptation are primary goals of all involved in the care of these patients. While enteral nutritional and pharmacological strategies are necessary to achieve these goals, there remains great variability in the application of therapeutic strategies in units that are not necessarily evidence-based. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A search of major English language medical databases (SCOPUS, Index Medicus, Medline, and the Cochrane database) was conducted for the key words short bowel syndrome, medical management, nutritional management and intestinal adaptation. All pharmacological and nutritional agents encountered in the literature search were classified based on their effects on absorptive capacity, intestinal adaptation and bowel motility that are the three major strategies employed in the management of SBS. The Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) classification for levels of evidence was used to develop grades of clinical recommendation for each variable studied. RESULTS: We reviewed various medications used and nutritional strategies included soluble fiber, enteral fat, glutamine, probiotics and sodium supplementation. Most interventions have scientific rationale but little evidence to support their role in the management of infant SBS. While some of these agents symptomatically improve diarrhea, they can adversely influence pancreatico-biliary function or actually impair intestinal adaptation. Surgical anatomy and liver function are two important variables that should determine the selection of pharmacological and nutritional interventions. DISCUSSION: There is a paucity of research investigating optimal clinical practice in infant SBS and the little evidence available is consistently of lower quality, resulting in a wide variation of clinical practices among NICUs. Prospective trials should be encouraged to bridge the evidence gap between research and clinical practice to promote further progress in the field.

Aplicación de un programa educativo sobre la enfermedad diarreica aguda: Policlínicas René Vallejo y Bayamo-Oeste, 2011 / Application of and educative program about acute diarrheic diseases. René Vallejo and West Bayamo Polyclinics

Se aplicó un programa educativo sustentado en los factores de riesgo de la enfermedad diarreica aguda con el objetivo de evaluar su eficacia para elevar el conocimiento de los familiares de niños y niñas menores de un año atendidos con esta enfermedad en las áreas de salud de las policlínicas René Vallejo y Bayamo Oeste del municipio Bayamo, en el período comprendido de enero a diciembre del 2011. Las variables fueron: la lactancia materna exclusiva hasta el sexto mes, lavado de las manos, el uso de sales de rehidratación oral al inicio de un episodio diarreico, el consumo de agua hervida, el lavado de manos para manipular alimentos y después de defecar, la higiene personal y de utensilios antes de alimentar al niño, la administración de remedios caseros, la presencia de vectores en el hogar. El universo estuvo constituido por 346 familiares de niños y niñas menores de un año el que se hizo coincidir con la muestra. Una vez aplicado en programa educativo, mediante la prueba de ANOVA de Friedman se constató el incremento del conocimiento sobre los factores de riesgo en los familiares de los niños y niñas menores de un año beneficiarios de la investigación, al pasar el conocimiento de un rango promedio medio (1,14) a un rango promedio alto (1,86); (n=346; X2=252,0; p=0,0; α=0,05); demostrándose la eficacia del programa educativo para incrementar el conocimiento de los familiares de los niños y niñas menores de un año(AU)

An educative program based on risk factors of acute diarrhea disease was used to evaluate its efficacy to increase the awareness of family members of children under one year old who had been treated for this condition in different health areas of the policlinics René Vallejo and Bayamo Oeste in Bayamo Municipality, from January to December, 2011. The variables studied were lactation up to the six month of life, hand washing, the use of oral rehydration salts at the onset a diarrhea episode, the use of boiled water, hand washing to manipulate foods and after defecation, personal hygiene and hygiene of utensils before feeding the baby, administration of home remedies, and presence of carriers at home. The universe consisted of 346 family members of children under one year old and it coincided with the sample. After the educative program was introduced, ANOVA and Friedman tests were used to evaluate whether the level of awareness about risk factors had increased in family members of children under one year old who benefitted with this investigation. The level of awareness shifted from a mid (1,14) to a high (1,86) average; N=346; X2=252,0; p=0,0; α=0,05. It demonstrated the efficacy of the educative program to increase the awareness of family members of children under one year old(EU)

Knowledge and use of zinc supplementation in the management of childhood diarrhoea among health care workers in public primary health facilities in Benin-City, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Zinc supplementation reduces the severity, duration and recurrence of childhood acute diarrhoea. These beneficial effects of zinc in the treatment of diarrhoea led to the inclusion of a 10-14 days treatment regimen by the WHO/UNICEF. This study assessed the level of knowledge and use of zinc supplementation in the management of childhood diarrhoea among health care workers in public primary health facilities in Benin-City, Nigeria. METHODOLOGY: This cross-sectional study was carried out among the total population of health care providers in public primary health facilities in Benin-City. Data collection was done using a pre-tested, structured, self-administered questionnaire and data was analyzed using SPSS version 15.0. RESULTS: A total of 168 health care workers participated in the study. Two-thirds of them were aware of zinc supplementation but specific knowledge of zinc supplementation in the management of childhood acute diarrhoea was poor. Thirty-five percent of them prescribed zinc when managing childhood diarrhoea and only 10% of these do so for every case of childhood diarrhoea. About 84.6% of them prescribed the correct dose of zinc while less than half of them prescribe it for the correct duration. All but one of them prescribed zinc in addition to ORS in line with the WHO guideline. DISCUSSION: The study revealed a gap in the knowledge and practice of use of zinc supplementation in the management of childhood diarrhoea. It is recommended that nationwide campaigns should be embarked on to promote the use of zinc supplementation in the clinical management of childhood diarrhoea.

Effect on infant illness of maternal supplementation with 400 000 IU vs 200 000 IU of vitamin A.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Postpartum vitamin A supplementation is a strategy used to combat vitamin A deficiency and seems to reduce maternal/infant morbidity and mortality. However, studies have shown that a dose of 200 000 IU (World Health Organization [WHO] protocol) does not seem to provide adequate retinol levels in maternal breast milk, infant serum, and infant tissue. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of postpartum maternal supplementation with 400 000 IU (International Vitamin A Consultative Group protocol) compared with 200 000 IU of vitamin A on infant morbidity. METHODS: This was a randomized controlled, triple-blinded clinical trial conducted at 2 public maternity hospitals in Recife in northeastern Brazil. There were 276 mother-child pairs that were allocated to 2 treatment groups: 400 000 IU or 200 000 IU of vitamin A. They were followed up for >6 months to evaluate infant morbidity. RESULTS: Fever (rate ratio [RR]: 0.92 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.75-1.14]), diarrhea (RR: 0.96 [95% CI: 0.72-1.28]), otitis (RR: 0.94 [95% CI: 0.48-1.85]), acute respiratory infection (RR: 1.03 [95% CI: 0.88-1.21]), the need for intravenous rehydration (RR: 2.08 [95% CI: 0.64-2.07]), and the use of antibiotic treatment (RR: 0.80 [95% CI: 0.43-1.47]) did not differ significantly between the 2 treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that postpartum maternal supplementation with 400 000 IU of vitamin A does not provide any additional benefits in the reduction of illness in children aged <6 months; therefore, we do not support the proposal to increase the standard vitamin A dose in the existing WHO protocol.

Efectividad de un programa educativo en el nivel de conocimientos de las madres de niños menores de 5 años sobre prevención y tratamiento de las diarreas en el AA.HH Flore de Villa, S.J.M. 2011 / Effectiveness of an educative program at the level of knowledge of the mothers of children under 5 years about the prevention and treatment of diarrheas in the AA.HH. Flores de Villa, S.J.M. 2011

El presente estudio tiene como objetivo determinar la Efectividad de un Programa Educativo en el nivel de conocimientos de las madres de niños menores de 5 años sobre prevención y tratamiento de las diarreas en el AA.HH. Flores de Villa-S.J.M. 2011. El estudio es de tipo cuantitativo, nivel aplicativo, método cuasi-experimental; la muestra estuvo conformada por 45 madres, obtenida mediante muestreo probabilístico. El instrumento que se utilizó para la recolección de datos fue el cuestionario y como técnica la encuesta, el cual fue aplicado antes y después de la aplicación del Programa Educativo. Los resultados mostraron que antes de la aplicación del programa educativo, la mayoría de las madres, presentaron un nivel de conocimientos bajo tanto para prevención 29 (64.5 por ciento) como para el tratamiento 33 (73.3 por ciento) de las diarreas. Después de la aplicación del programa educativo la mayoría de las madres presentó un nivel de conocimientos alto tanto para la prevención (75.5 por ciento) como para el tratamiento (71.1 por ciento) de las diarreas; siendo estos resultados significativos, el cual fue demostrado a través de la prueba t de student, obteniéndose un tcaIc 15 para tratamiento y tcaIc 13.7 para prevención, con un nivel de significancia de 0.05 por lo que se acepta la hipótesis estudio comprobando así la efectividad del Programa Educativo en el incremento de conocimientos en la prevención y tratamiento de las diarreas para la población

The present study aims to determine the effectiveness of an educational program at the level of knowledge of mothers of children under 5 years on the prevention and treatment of diarrhea in the AA.HH. Flores Villa-SJM 2011. The study is type quantitative, application level, quasi-experimental method; the sample consisted of 45 mothers, obtained by probability sampling. The instrument used was the questionnaire as the survey technique, which was applied before and after application of the Educational Program. The results showed that before the implementation of the educational program, the majority of mothers had a low level of knowledge for prevention 29 (64.5 per cent) and treatment 33 (73.3 per cent) of diarrhea. After application of the educational program most of the mothers showed a high level of knowledge for prevention (75.5 per cent) and treatment (71.1 per cent) of diarrhea, being these significant results, which was demonstrated through Student's t test, obtaining a tcalc 15 for treatment and prevention tcalc 13.7, with a significance level of 0.05, we accepted the study hypothesis and checking the effectiveness of the educational program in increasing knowledge in the prevention and treatment of diarrhea for the population

A community perspective on changes in health related to diarrhea in northeastern Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhea is a major cause of death in children in developing countries. However, in Brazil, diarrhea-related morbidity and mortality have declined over the past decades. OBJECTIVE: To explore community perspectives in Brazil on changes in health related to diarrhea and factors that may have contributed to these changes. METHODS: This qualitative study included 12 focus group sessions held with 50 mothers and 42 grandmothers in the state of Ceará. RESULTS: Most grandmothers reported having lost at least one child to diarrhea, and all participants had witnessed children dying from diarrhea in the past. The participants saw a clear decline in diarrhea over the past 20 years. They felt that this was due to social, economic, and cultural progress. The participants also considered government-supported outreach programs very important for health improvement. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of diarrhea and its causes in the community is broad, but many traditional beliefs about the illness still prevail. The Brazilian experience is an example of the critical effect that policies to promote income redistribution and universal access to education, health, water supply, and sanitation services may have on the reduction of undernutrition and diarrhea among children.

Childhood diarrhoea: failing conventional measures, what next?

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of infant mortality. This article analyzes its contribution towards the realization of millennium development goal number 4 (MDG-4). METHODS: A PubMed search using keywords acute infant diarrhea together with prevalence, management, or prevention 23 of the 634 generated articles were reviewed for inclusion. RESULTS: WHO first expressed concern about diarrhoeal mortality in 1979. Two decades later it reported diarrhoea as the second leading cause of infant mortality worldwide. The annual death toll of 1.5 million is greater than AIDS, malaria and measles combined. Short term repercussions (dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, malnutrition, shock, death) plus long-term diminished fitness index, cognitive function, and school performance have major impact on society. Ever since its 1971 success, Oral Rehydration Therapy has been the cornerstone treatment of diarrhoea. Decreased compliance has been recorded worldwide with Kenya ranking first. Intravenous therapy is useful in preventing complications while anti-diarrhoeals and anti-microbials, are indicated in severe cases. Zinc supplementation has also proven effective, and is recommended along with rehydration. Furthermore, immunization and good hygiene prevent faecal-oral transmissions. CONCLUSION: MDG-4 aims to reduce childhood mortality by 2/3 by 2015. Studies, however, show minimal progress, and the target is likely to be missed. Efforts must therefore be made to review existing strategies and formulate newer ones. Research priorities need to move away from perceived 'killer diseases' since far more children die in a day than have ever died from avian influenza for example.

Nutrición e inversión en salud: microbioma y probióticos (los probióticos en la prevención y el tratamiento de enfermedades pediátricas; evidencias científicas) / Nutrition and investment: microbiome and probiotics (probiotics in prevention and treatment of pediatric conditions; scientific evidence)

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Infant oral mutilation: a New Zealand case series.

Infant oral mutilation is a practice performed by traditional healers in many Eastern African countries. The sequelae of this practice have been recognised and reported on in many developed countries due to the migration of populations, customs and beliefs. This article describes three cases of infant oral mutilation that have been diagnosed in the Dental Department at Hutt Hospital, Lower Hutt.