Evaluation of the effects of Astragalus polysaccharides as immunostimulants on the immune response of crucian carp and against SVCV in vitro and in vivo.

This experiment was conducted to evaluate the immunomodulatory effect and antiviral activity of Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) in crucian carp and epithelioma papulosum cyprinid (EPC) cells. Two diets containing 0 and 2 g/kg, APS were fed crucian carp for 56 days. The results showed that supplementation with APS significantly upregulated the immune-related indices including the levels of IgM, the activities of LZM, AKP and ACP, and the contents of C3 and C4. At the same time, compared with the CK group, adding APS to the feed significantly upregulated the expression of IL-8, IL-10, IL-1ß, IFN-α, IFN-γ, MyD88, TGF-ß and TNF-α in the spleen, kidney, liver and intestine of crucian carp. In addition, when the crucian carp were injected with SVCV, the survival rates of fish in the APS group and the control group were 48.87% and 13.76%, respectively. These results indicated that dietary APS could improve the resistance of crucian carp against SVCV infection. APS also significantly decreased viral titer and inhibited apoptosis induced by SVCV in EPC cells. These results indicated that APS could stimulate the immune response of crucian carp and improve the abilities of crucian carp and EPC cells to resist SVCV infection.

Compounds Identified from Marine Mangrove Plant (Avicennia alba) as Potential Antiviral Drug Candidates Against WDSV, an In-Silico Approach.

Walleye dermal sarcoma virus (WDSV) is a type of retrovirus, which affects most of the adult walleye fishes during the spawning time. The virus causes multiple epithelial tumors on the fish's skin and fins that are liable for more than 50% of the mortality rate of fish around the world. Till now, no effective antiviral drug or vaccine candidates have been developed that can block the progression of the disease caused by the pathogen. It was found that the 582-amino-acid (aa) residues long internal structural gag polyprotein of the virus plays an important role in virus budding and virion maturation outside of the cell. Inhibition of the protein can block the budding and virion maturation process and can be developed as an antiviral drug candidate against the virus. Therefore, the study aimed to identify potential natural antiviral drug candidates from the tropical mangrove marine plant Avicennia alba, which will be able to block the budding and virion maturation process by inhibiting the activity of the gag protein of the virus. Initially, a homology modeling approach was applied to identify the 3D structure, followed by refinement and validation of the protein. The refined protein structures were then utilized for molecular docking simulation. Eleven phytochemical compounds have been isolated from the marine plant and docked against the virus gag polyprotein. Three compounds, namely Friedlein (CID244297), Phytosterols (CID12303662), and 1-Triacontanol (CID68972) have been selected based on their docking score -8.5 kcal/mol, -8.0 kcal/mol and -7.9 kcal/mol, respectively, and were evaluated through ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion), and toxicity properties. Finally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was applied to confirm the binding stability of the protein-ligands complex structure. The ADME and toxicity analysis reveal the efficacy and non-toxic properties of the compounds, where MD simulation confirmed the binding stability of the selected three compounds with the targeted protein. This computational study revealed the virtuous value of the selected three compounds against the targeted gag polyprotein and will be effective and promising antiviral candidates against the pathogen in a significant and worthwhile manner. Although in vitro and in vivo study is required for further evaluation of the compounds against the targeted protein.

Suppression effect of plant-derived berberine on cyprinid herpesvirus 2 proliferation and its pharmacokinetics in Crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio).

Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2), which infects silver crucian carp including goldfish (Carassius auratus auratus) and Crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) with high mortality, is an emerging viral pathogen worldwide. Previous studies showed that berberine (BBR), a bioactive plant-derived alkaloid, demonstrated potential antiviral actions against many different viruses. Here, we assessed the effect of berberine hydrochloride (BBH) on the replication of CyHV-2 in vitro and in vivo. Cytotoxicity assay indicated that 5-25 µg/mL BBH was non-toxic to the RyuF-2 cells. In viral inhibition assays, real time PCR was employed to titrate the genomic copy number of progeny virus, real time RT-PCR was applied to monitor the transcriptional levels of viral genes, and Western blot analysis was performed to detect the synthetic levels of viral proteins. The results demonstrated that BBH systematically impedes the viral gene transcription and suppressed the replication of CyHV-2 in RyuF-2 cells. In animal challenge test, BBH was confirmed to protect Crucian carps from CyHV-2 infection in a dose-dependent manner, which was supported by suppressed viral replication levels, reduced viral pathogenesis and higher survival rates. Furthermore, pharmacokinetics data of BBH in Crucian carp revealed its rapid absorption (Tmax of 1.5 h), suitable plasma half-life (t1/2z/h of 7-12 h depending on oral dosage), and dose-dependent drug exposure properties following oral administration (revealed by AUC0-t values). These findings shed light on repurposing BBH to treat CyHV-2 infections in silver crucian carp.

Antiviral activity of Illicium verum Hook. f. extracts against grouper iridovirus infection.

Grouper iridovirus causes high mortality rates in cultured groupers, and effective treatment for grouper iridovirus infection is urgently required. Illicium verum Hook. f. is a well-known medicinal plant with a variety of biological activities. The aim of this study was to analyse the use of I. verum extracts to treat grouper iridovirus infection. The safe working concentration of each I. verum extract was identified both in vitro and in vivo as follows: I. verum aqueous extract (IVAE) ≤ 500 µg/ml; I. verum ethanol extract (IVEE) ≤ 250 µg/ml; shikimic acid (SKA) ≤ 250 µg/ml; trans-anethole (TAT) ≤ 800 µg/ml; 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DDBA) ≤ 400 µg/ml; and quercetin (QCE) ≤ 50 µg/ml. The inhibitory activity of each I. verum extract against grouper iridovirus infection was analysed using aptamer (Q2)-based fluorescent molecular probe (Q2-AFMP) and RT-qPCR. All of the I. verum extracts displayed dose-dependent antiviral activities against grouper iridovirus. Based on the achieved per cent inhibition, IVAE, IVEE, DDBA and QCE were associated with the greatest antiviral activity (all > 90%). Together, our results indicate that I. verum extracts have effective antiviral properties, making it an excellent potential source material for the development of effective treatment for grouper iridovirus infection.

Poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) in bioflocs alters intestinal microbial community structure, immune-related gene expression and early Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 replication in gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio).

The aquaculture system based on biofloc technology (BFT) showed positive effects on prevention of Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2) infection in gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio), which is detrimental to health and causes seriously economic losses to aquaculture. However, the enhancement mechanism of BFT regarding immunity and disease resistance of cultured species is scarce. Poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) has been proved as one of bioactive compounds in bioflocs. In this study, two groups (4% PHB supplementation diets and control with basal diets) with 30-day feeding were set to study the effect of PHB supplementation on immune-related gene expression by qRT-PCR, time-course CyHV-2 replication in vivo by qPCR and intestinal microbiota by illumine high-throughput sequencing. PHB supplementation significantly up-regulated transcriptional levels of eight immune-related genes, decreased cumulative mortality of gibel carp and early CyHV-2 replication in spleen in vivo (P < 0.05). Additionally, PHB changed the microbial structure but not diversity, and significantly increased beneficial bacteria such as Bacillus sp. KEGG pathway analysis by PICRUSt demonstrated that oral administration of PHB up-regulated abundances of genes responsible for seven pathways and down-regulated genes in eleven pathways. Histological structures of foregut, mindgut and hindgut were also affected. Our findings suggested that profitable effects of PHB on immunity and disease resistance might be gut microbiota-related, and regulated through pathways of enzymes secretion, replication and repair, and host immune system. This study will provide new insights into understanding the enhancing mechanism of BFT on immunity and disease resistance of cultured animals, and developing prebiotics/probiotics-based immunotherapies to improve animal health and disease resistance.

Susceptibility of betanodavirus in a newly established vertebra-derived cell line from Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis).

In the present study, a new cell line from the vertebra of mosquitofish Gambusia affinis was successfully established and characterized. The cell line is named as bone Gambusia affinis (BGA) and subcultured for more than 55 passages in Leibovitz's/L15 medium supplemented with 15% FBS at 28°C. The cell line has a modal chromosome number of 48. Molecular characterization of the partial sequence of the coi gene confirmed the origin of the BGA cell line from mosquitofish. These cells exhibited epithelial morphology confirmed by the cytokeratin marker. The BGA cells showed mineralization of their extracellular matrix when stained with alizarin red and von Kossa stain. BGA cells were found to be susceptible to RGNNV and SJNNV strains of betanodavirus (NNV) showing cytopathic effect with multiple vacuolations in the cells. The RT-PCR confirmed the betanodavirus infections in BGA cells. The SEM micrograph showed the morphological changes observed in the cell during virus infection. The in vivo challenge experiment also showed the viral replicating efficiency in the Gambusia affinis with increasing viral titre. Thus, our present results show that the BGA cell line is a useful tool for isolating betanodavirus and could be used to investigate bone cell differentiation and extracellular matrix mineralization.

Can inorganic elements affect herpesvirus infections in European eels?

In combination, pollution and pathogens represent a serious threat to the health of European eels that has been increasingly recognized. Thus, the impact of contaminants, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium, on anguillid herpesvirus 1 infection in wild European eels has been evaluated. Despite the small sample size, results indicate that selenium and mercury concentrations may compromise the European eel immune system as herpesvirus infection was more prevalent in specimens with higher Hg and Se hepatic concentrations.

Ursolic acid from Prunella vulgaris L. efficiently inhibits IHNV infection in vitro and in vivo.

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) is a fish viral pathogen that causes severe disease and huge economic losses in the salmonid aquaculture industry. However, anti-IHNV drugs currently are scarce. For the purpose of seeking out anti-IHNV drugs, the anti-IHNV activities of 32 medicinal plants were investigated by using epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells. Among these plants, Prunella vulgaris L. (PVL) showed the strongest inhibition on IHNV replication with an inhibitory percentage of 99.3% at the concentration 100 mg/L. Further studies demonstrated that ursolic acid (UA), a major constituent of PVL, also showed a highly effective anti-IHNV activity. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) at 72 h of UA on IHNV was 8.0 µM. Besides, UA could significantly decrease cytopathic effect (CPE) and the viral titer induced by IHNV in EPC cells. More importantly, UA also showed a strong anti-IHNV activity in vivo, as indicated by increasing the survival rate of rainbow trout and inhibiting viral gene expression. Intraperitoneal injection of UA increased the relative percentage of survival of rainbow trout by 18.9% and inhibited IHNV glycoprotein mRNA expression by > 90.0% in the spleen at the 1st-day post-infection. Altogether, UA was expected to be a therapeutic agent against IHNV infection in aquaculture.

Synthesis and antiviral activity of a new arctigenin derivative against IHNV in vitro and in vivo.

Viral diseases in aquaculture were challenging because there are few preventative measures and/or treatments. Our previous study indicated that imidazole arctigenin derivatives possessed antiviral activities against infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). Based on the structure-activity relationship in that study, a new imidazole arctigenin derivative, 4-(8-(2-ethylimidazole)octyloxy)-arctigenin (EOA), was designed, synthesized and its anti-IHNV activity was evaluated. By comparing inhibitory concentration at half-maximal activity (IC50), we found that EOA (IC50 = 0.56 mg/L) possessed a higher antiviral activity than those imidazole arctigenin derivatives in our previous study. Besides, EOA could significantly decrease cytopathic effect (CPE) and viral titer induced by IHNV in epithelioma papulosum cyprinid (EPC) cells. In addition, EOA significantly inhibited apoptosis induced by IHNV in EPC cells. Further data verified that EOA inhibited IHNV replication in rainbow trout, with reducing 32.0% mortality of IHNV-infected fish. The results suggested that EOA was more stable with a prolonged inhibitory half-life in the early stage of virus infection (1-4 days). Consistent with above results, EOA repressed IHNV glycoprotein gene expression in virus sensitive tissues (kidney and spleen) in the early stage of virus infection. Moreover, histopathological evaluation showed that tissues from the spleen and kidney of fish infected with IHNV exhibited pathological changes. But there were no lesions in any of the tissues from the control group and EOA-treaten group. In accordance with the histopathological assay, EOA could elicited anti-inflammation response in non-viral infected rainbow trout by down-regulating the expression of cytokine genes (IL-8, IL-12p40, and TNF-α). Altogether, EOA was expected to be a therapeutic agent against IHNV infection in the field of aquaculture.

The first clawed lobster virus Homarus gammarus nudivirus (HgNV n. sp.) expands the diversity of the Nudiviridae.

Viral diseases of crustaceans are increasingly recognised as challenges to shellfish farms and fisheries. Here we describe the first naturally-occurring virus reported in any clawed lobster species. Hypertrophied nuclei with emarginated chromatin, characteristic histopathological lesions of DNA virus infection, were observed within the hepatopancreatic epithelial cells of juvenile European lobsters (Homarus gammarus). Transmission electron microscopy revealed infection with a bacilliform virus containing a rod shaped nucleocapsid enveloped in an elliptical membrane. Assembly of PCR-free shotgun metagenomic sequencing produced a circular genome of 107,063 bp containing 97 open reading frames, the majority of which share sequence similarity with a virus infecting the black tiger shrimp: Penaeus monodon nudivirus (PmNV). Multiple phylogenetic analyses confirm the new virus to be a novel member of the Nudiviridae: Homarus gammarus nudivirus (HgNV). Evidence of occlusion body formation, characteristic of PmNV and its closest relatives, was not observed, questioning the horizontal transmission strategy of HgNV outside of the host. We discuss the potential impacts of HgNV on juvenile lobster growth and mortality and present HgNV-specific primers to serve as a diagnostic tool for monitoring the virus in wild and farmed lobster stocks.

The inhibitory activities and antiviral mechanism of Viola philippica aqueous extracts against grouper iridovirus infection in vitro and in vivo.

Grouper iridovirus (GIV) is one of the most serious pathogens in mariculture and causes high mortality rates in cultured groupers; then, effective medicines for controlling GIV infections are urgently needed. Viola philippica is a well-known medicinal plant, and the application of V. philippica aqueous extracts against GIV infection was assessed by different methods in this study. The results showed that the working concentration of V. philippica aqueous extracts was 10 mg/ml. V. philippica aqueous extracts below 10 mg/ml have no significant cytotoxic effects on cell viability, while extracts over 15 mg/ml decreased cell viability and showed cytotoxic activity. V. philippica aqueous extracts had excellent inhibitory effects against GIV infection in vitro and in vivo. The possible antiviral mechanism of V. philippica was further analysed, which indicated that V. philippica did no damages to GIV particles, but it could disturb GIV binding, entry and replication in host cells. V. philippica had the best inhibitory effects against GIV during viral infection stage of binding and replication in host cells. Overall, the results suggest that appropriate concentration of V. philippica aqueous extracts has great antiviral effects, making it an interesting candidate for developing effective medicines for preventing and controlling GIV infection in farmed groupers.

Highly efficient inhibition of spring viraemia of carp virus replication in vitro mediated by bavachin, a major constituent of psoralea corlifonia Lynn.

As one of nine piscine viruses recognized by the International Office of Epizootics, spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV) is an important pathogen bringing high mortality to cyprinids. Up to now, there is no approved therapy on SVCV, making them strong public health threat in aquaculture. In this study, the anti-SVCV activities of 12 plant crude extracts were investigated by using epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells. Among these plants, Psoralea corylifolia Linn. showed the highest inhibition on SVCV replication, with an inhibitory percentage of 67.98%. Further studies demonstrated that bavachin (BVN), one of the major constituents of Psoralea corylifolia Linn., was also highly effective to SVCV infection. The half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of BVN on SVCV glycoprotein and nucleoprotein expression were 0.46 (0.29-0.73) and 0.31 (0.13-0.55) mg/L, respectively. In addition, SVCV-induced apoptosis which may be negative to SVCV replication was inhibited by BVN. The apoptotic cells were decreased 21.42% for BVN compared with SVCV group. These results indicated that the inhibition of BVN on SVCV replication was, in some extent, via blocking SVCV induced apoptosis. Furthermore, cellular morphological damage induced by SVCV was also blocked by BVN treatment. Mechanistically, BVN did not affect SVCV infectivity and cannot be used for prevention of SVCV infection. Time-of-addition and viral binding assays revealed that BVN mainly inhibited the early events of SVCV replication but did not interfere with SVCV adsorption. In conclusion, BVN was considered to develop as a promising agent to treat SVCV infection.

Antiviral activities of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau extract against Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in koi (Cyprinus carpio koi).

Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) or koi herpesvirus (KHV) is a virulent viral infection in common carp and koi. The disease has caused global epizootic and economic loss in fish aquaculture and in the wild. Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau is a well-known medicinal plant used in Thai traditional medicine. Virucidal effects of the plant extract against human herpes simplex virus have been reported. In this study, C. nutans crude extract was tested for antiviral activities against CyHV-3 in koi carp. Results showed effective antiviral activity against CyHV-3 pre- and post-infection. The 50% lethal concentration (LC50 ) of extract was higher than 5 mg/ml. The 50% effective dose (ED50 ) was 0.99 mg/ml, 0.78 mg/ml, 0.75 mg/ml and 0.71 mg/ml at 1, 2, 3 and 4 hr pre-infection, respectively. The ED50 from post-infection tests was 2.05 mg/ml and 2.34 mg/ml at 0 and 24 hr, respectively. These results demonstrated that crude extract expressed antiviral activity against CyHV-3 and can be applied as a therapeutic agent in common carp and koi aquaculture.

Magnolol protects Ctenopharyngodon idella kidney cells from apoptosis induced by grass carp reovirus.

Many natural products from medicinal plants are small molecular weight compounds with enormous structural diversity and show various biological activities. Magnolol is a biphenol compound rich in the stem bark of Magnolia officinalis Rehd et Wils., and is able to suppress viral replication in GCRV-infected grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) kidney (CIK) cells in the previous study. In this study, in vivo studies demonstrated that magnolol was efficient to restrain the replication of GCRV and repair the low level of superoxide dismutase and total antioxidant capacity in serum at the non-toxic concentration in vivo. Furthermore, magnolol inhibited CIK cell apoptosis induced by GCRV and kept the normal cellular morphological structure, reflecting in the protection of CIK cells from cell swelling, the formation of apoptotic bodies, the disappearance of cellular morphology and nuclear fragmentation. Reverse transcript quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) showed that magnolol facilitated the expression of apoptosis-inhibiting gene bcl-2, while suppressed the expression of apoptosis-promoting gene bax in GCRV-infected cells. Besides, RT-qPCR and enzyme activity assays proved that magnolol suppressed the expression of caspase 3, caspase 8 and caspase 9. Moreover, interactions between magnolol and proteins were predicted by using the STITCH program, which revealed that ten proteins including caspase 3, were involved in the apoptosis pathway, p53 signaling pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and toll-like receptor signaling pathway. Further assays were performed to test the effect of magnolol on apoptosis pathway, which showed that magnolol dramatically inhibited the activity of caspase 3 rather than those of caspase 8 and caspase 9. Collectively, the present study revealed that magnolol heightened the resistance of grass carp against GCRV infection and refrained GCRV-induced apoptosis, which may be attributed to the direct interaction of magnolol with caspase 3. The present results make a contribution to understanding the mechanisms by which small-molecule drugs possess antiviral activities, and lay a foundation for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral compounds in aquaculture industry.

Magnolol and honokiol from Magnolia officinalis enhanced antiviral immune responses against grass carp reovirus in Ctenopharyngodon idella kidney cells.

Medicinal plants have been widely used for a long history. Exploration of pharmacologically active compounds from medicinal plants present a broad prevalent of application. By examining viral mRNA expression in GCRV-infected Ctenopharyngodon idella kidney (CIK) cells treated with thirty kinds of plant extracts, we identified Magnolia officinalis Rehd et Wils. was able to preferably suppress viral replication. Further studies demonstrated that the main ingredients of magnolia bark, namely, magnolol and honokiol presented protective pharmacological function when treated GCRV-infected CIK cells with a concentration of 2.00 µg/ml and 1.25 µg/ml, respectively. Furthermore, reverse transcript quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot showed that both magnolol and honokiol were efficient to restrain the replication of GCRV in CIK cells at non-toxic concentration (2.51 ± 0.51 µg/ml for magnolol, and 3.18 ± 0.61 µg/ml for honokiol). Moreover, it was found that magnolol and honokiol promoted the expression of immune-related genes. Magnolol obviously significantly increased the expression of interferon (IFN) regulatory factor (IRF)7 rather than that of IRF3 in the GCRV-infected cells, leading to the activation of type I IFN (IFN-I). Simultaneously, magnolol drastically facilitated the expression of interleukin (IL)-1ß, but failed to induce the molecules in nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathways. Differently, honokiol strikingly motivated not only the expression of IL-1ß, but also those of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and NF-κB. Interestingly, though honokiol motivated the expression of IFN-ß promoter stimulator 1 (IPS-1), IRF3 and IRF7, it failed to up-regulate the expression of IFN-I, indicating that honokiol enhanced the host innate antiviral response to GCRV infection via NF-κB pathways. Collectively, the present study revealed that magnolol and honokiol facilitated the expression of innate immune-related genes to strengthen the innate immune signaling responses to resist GCRV infection, which contributed to understanding the mechanisms by which small-molecule drugs possessed antiviral activities. In addition, these results lay a foundation for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral compounds in aquaculture industry.

Antiviral effects of extracts from Celosia cristata and Raphanus sativus roots against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus.

The antiviral activity of an extract mixture from Celosia cristata and Raphanus sativus was tested against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV). Pretreatment of EPC cells with this extract up to 72 h before VHSV infection markedly reduced the virus titer, but it had no effect when added after virus inoculation. In olive flounder that received 5 µg of extract per fish, Mx expression peaked at 48 h after treatment. In contrast, ISG15 and TLR2 expression peaked at 72 h, and that of TLR7 peaked at 48 h, followed by a slight decrease at 72 h, indicating that the antiviral activity was mediated by induction of gene expression involved in the innate immune response.

Antiviral function of grouper MDA5 against iridovirus and nodavirus.

Melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) is a critical member of retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptor (RLR) family which can recognize viral RNA and enhances antiviral response in host cells. In this study, a MDA5 homolog from orange spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) (EcMDA5) was cloned, and its roles on grouper virus infection were characterized. The full-length EcMDA5 cDNA encoded a polypeptide of 982 amino acids with 74% identity with MDA5 homolog from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus). Amino acid alignment analysis indicated that EcMDA5 contained three functional domains: two caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARDs), a DEAD box helicase-like (DExDc) domain, a helicase superfamily C-terminal domain (HELICc), and a C-terminal regulatory domain (RD). Upon challenge with Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) or polyinosin-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), the transcript of EcMDA5 was significantly up-regulated especially at the early stage post-injection. Under fluorescence microscopy, we observed that EcMDA5 mostly localized in the cytoplasm of grouper spleen (GS) cells. Interestingly, during virus infection, the distribution pattern of EcMDA5 was significantly altered in SGIV infected cells, but not in red spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV) infected cells, suggested that EcMDA5 might interact with viral proteins during SGIV infection. The ectopic expression of EcMDA5 in vitro obviously delayed virus infection induced cytopathic effect (CPE) progression and significantly inhibited viral gene transcription of RGNNV and SGIV. Moreover, overexpression of EcMDA5 not only significantly increased interferon (IFN) and IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) promoter activities in a dose dependent manner, but also enhanced the expression of IRF3, IRF7 and TRAF6. In addition, the transcription level of the proinflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 were differently altered by EcMDA5 overexpression during SGIV or RGNNV infection, suggesting that the regulation on proinflammatory cytokines by EcMDA5 were also important for RGNNV infection. Together, our results demonstrated for the first time that the inhibitory effect of fish MDA5 on iridovirus replication might be mainly through the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines.

A specific CpG oligodeoxynucleotide induces protective antiviral responses against grass carp reovirus in grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella.

CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) show strong immune stimulatory activity in vertebrate, however, they possess specific sequence feature among species. In this study, we screened out an optimal CpG ODN sequence for grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), 1670A 5'-TCGAACGTTTTAACGTTTTAACGTT-3', from six published sequences and three sequences designed by authors based on grass carp head kidney mononuclear cells and CIK (C. idella kidney) cells proliferation. VP4 mRNA expression was strongly inhibited by CpG ODN 1670A in CIK cells with GCRV infection, showing its strong antiviral activity. The mechanism via toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-mediated signaling pathway was measured by real-time quantitative RT-PCR, and TLR21 did not play a role in the immune response to CpG ODN. The late up-regulation of CiRIG-I mRNA expression indicated that RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) signaling pathway participated in the immune response to CpG ODN which is the first report on the interaction between CpG and RLRs. We also found that the efficient CpG ODN can activates interferon system. Infected with GCRV, type I interferon expression was reduced and type II interferon was induced by the efficient CpG ODN in CIK cells, especially IFNγ2, suggesting that IFNγ2 played an important role in response to the efficient CpG ODN. These results provide a theoretical basis and new development trend for further research on CpG and the application of CpG vaccine adjuvant in grass carp disease control.

Impact of selenium supplementation on fish antiviral responses: a whole transcriptomic analysis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed supranutritional levels of Sel-Plex®.

BACKGROUND: Selenium (Se) is required for the synthesis of proteins (selenoproteins) with essential biological functions. Selenoproteins have a crucial role in the maintenance of cellular redox homeostasis in nearly all tissues, and are also involved in thyroid hormone metabolism, inflammation and immunity. Several immune processes rely on Se status and can be compromised if this element is present below the required level. Previous work has supported the notion that when Se is delivered at levels above those deemed to be the minimal required but below toxic concentrations it can have a boosting effect on the organism's immune response. Based on this concept Se-enriched supplements may represent a valuable resource for functional feeds in animal farming, including aquaculture. RESULTS: In this study we tested the effects of Se supplemented as Sel-Plex during an immune challenge induced by polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) that mimics viral infection. Trout were fed two diets enriched with 1 or 4 mg Se Kg(-1) of feed (dry weight) by Sel-Plex addition and a commercial formulation as control. The whole trout transcriptomic response was investigated by microarray and gene ontology analysis, the latter carried out to highlight the biological processes that were influenced by Sel-Plex supplementation in the head kidney (HK) and liver, the main immune and metabolic organs in fish. Overall, Sel-Plex enrichment up to 4 mg Se Kg(-1) induced an important response in the trout HK, eliciting an up-regulation of several genes involved in pathways connected with hematopoiesis and immunity. In contrast, a more constrained response was seen in the liver, with lipid metabolism being the main pathway altered by Se supplementation. Upon stimulation with poly(I:C), supplementation of 4 mg Se Kg(-1) increased the expression of principal mediators of the antiviral defences, especially IFN-γ, and down-stream molecules involved in the cell-mediated immune response. CONCLUSIONS: Supplementation of diets with 4 mg Se Kg(-1) using Sel-Plex remarkably improved the fish response to viral PAMP stimulation. Sel-Plex, being a highly bioavailable supplement of organic Se, might represent a suitable option for supplementation of fish feeds, to achieve the final aim of improving fish fitness and resistance against immune challenges.