Impedance-Based Nanoporous Anodized Alumina/ITO Platforms for Label-Free Biosensors.

We report an experimental and computational approach for the fabrication and characterization of a highly sensitive and responsive label-free biosensor that does not require the presence of redox couples in electrolytes for sensitive electrochemical detection. The sensor is based on an aptamer-functionalized transparent electrode composed of nanoporous anodized alumina (NAA) grown on indium tin oxide (ITO)-covered glass. Electrochemical impedance changes in a thrombin binding aptamer (TBA)-functionalized NAA/ITO/glass electrode due to specific binding of α-thrombin are monitored for protein detection. The aptamer-functionalized electrode enables sensitive and specific thrombin protein detection with a detection limit of ∼10 pM and a high signal-to-noise ratio. The transient impedance of the alumina film-covered surface is computed using a computational electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) approach and compared to experimental observations to identify the dominant mechanisms underlying the sensor response. The computational and experimental results indicate that the sensing response is due to the modified ionic transport under the combined influence of steric hindrance and surface charge modification due to ligand/receptor binding between α-thrombin and the aptamer-covered alumina film. These results suggest that alumina film-covered electrodes utilize both steric and charge modulation for sensing, leading to tremendous improvement in the sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. The film configuration is amenable for miniaturization and can be readily incorporated into existing portable sensing systems.

The electrochemical immunosensor for detection of prostatic specific antigen using quince seed mucilage-GNPs-SNPs as a green composite.

Prostatic specific antigen (PSA) is known as a biomarker of prostate cancer. In males, prostate cancer is ranked second as leading cause of death out of more than 200 different cancer types1. As a result, early detection of cancer can cause a significant reduction in mortality. PSA concentration directly is related to prostate cancer, so normal serum concentrations in healthy means are 4 ng and above 10 ng as abnormal concentration. Therefore, PSA determination is important to cancer progression. In this study, a free label electrochemical immunosensor was prepared based on a new green platform for the quantitative detection of the PSA. The used platform was formed from quince seed mucilage containing green gold and silver nanoparticles and synthesized by the green method (using Calendula officinalis L. extract). The quince mucilage biopolymer was used as a sub layer to assemble nanoparticles and increase the electrochemical performance. This nanocomposite was used to increase the antibody loading and accelerate the electron transfer, which can increase the biosensor sensitivity. The antibodies of the PSA biomarker were successfully incubated on the green platform. Under the optimal conditions, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was proportional to the PSA biomarker concentration from 0.1 pg mL-1 to 100 ng mL-1 with low limit of detection (0.078 pg mL-1). The proposed green immunosensor exhibited high stability and reproducibility, which can be used for the quantitative assay of the PSA biomarker in clinical analyses. The results of real sample analysis presented another tool for the PSA biomarker detection in physiologic models.

A novel photoelectrochemical sensor based on tailoring printable mesoscopic chip for fast and real-time phospholipids oxidation detection.

The detection of phospholipids oxidation is important for meat control and disease prevention. In this paper, a photoelectrochemical sensor based on printable mesoscopic chip (PMC) for fast and real-time monitoring phospholipids oxidation was designed and fabricated. TiO2, ZrO2 and carbon films of PMC were screen-printed onto the FTO glass layer by layer. The PMC and the feasibility for determination of phospholipids oxidation were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM), UV-vis spectroscopy, cyclic voltammograms (CVs) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), etc. The short circuit current (Jsc) was used as a signal current, which would decrease if phospholipids in PMC were undergoing oxidation for the change of electrical properties. Compared with other methods, phospholipids in PMC did not require pretreatment, and the process was nondestructive and real-time. Meanwhile, this method showed high sensitivity and good selectivity. The fabricating process of PMC is simple, and the costs are low, relatively.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy characterization of beverages.

This paper compares the results of standard chemical analytical processes and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in the characterization of different beverages, namely ground coffee, soluble coffee, coffee substitutes, barley, cow milk, vegetable drinks, tea, plant infusions and plant mixtures. For the two approaches, the similarities between the experimental data are assessed by means of the Euclidean and Canberra distances. The resulting information is processed by means of the multidimensional scaling (MDS) clustering and visualization algorithm. The results of the chemical analytical processes and EIS reveal identical clusters for the two adopted distances. Furthermore, the robustness of the experimental and computational scheme are assessed by means of the Procrustes technique. The results confirm the effectiveness of combining the EIS and MDS.

Fabrication and characterization of polyimide-based 'smooth' titanium nitride microelectrode arrays for neural stimulation and recording.

OBJECTIVE: As electrodes are required to interact with sub-millimeter neural structures, innovative microfabrication processes are required to enable fabrication of microdevices involved in such stimulation and/or recording. This requires the development of highly integrated and miniaturized systems, comprising die-integration-compatible technology and flexible microelectrodes. To elicit selective stimulation and recordings of sub-neural structures, such microfabrication process flow can beneficiate from the integration of titanium nitride (TiN) microelectrodes onto a polyimide substrate. Finally, assembling onto cuffs is required, as well as electrode characterization. APPROACH: Flexible TiN microelectrode array integration and miniaturization was achieved through microfabrication technology based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor processing techniques and materials. They are highly reproducible processes, granting extreme control over the feature size and shape, as well as enabling the integration of on-chip electronics. This design is intended to enhance the integration of future electronic modules, with high gains on device miniaturization. MAIN RESULTS: (a) Fabrication of two electrode designs, (1) 2 mm long array with 14 TiN square-shaped microelectrodes (80 × 80 µm2), and (2) an electrode array with 2 mm × 80 µm contacts. The average impedances at 1 kHz were 59 and 5.5 kΩ, respectively, for the smaller and larger contacts. Both designs were patterned on a flexible substrate and directly interconnected with a silicon chip. (b) Integration of flexible microelectrode array onto a cuff electrode designed for acute stimulation of the sub-millimeter nerves. (c) The TiN electrodes exhibited capacitive charge transfer, a water window of -0.6 V to 0.8 V, and a maximum charge injection capacity of 154 ± 16 µC cm-2. SIGNIFICANCE: We present the concept, fabrication and characterization of composite and flexible cuff electrodes, compatible with post-processing and MEMS packaging technologies, which allow for compact integration with control, readout and RF electronics. The fabricated TiN microelectrodes were electrochemically characterized and exhibited a comparable performance to other state-of-the-art electrodes for neural stimulation and recording. Therefore, the presented TiN-on-polyimide microelectrodes, released from silicon wafers, are a promising solution for neural interfaces targeted at sub-millimeter nerves, which may benefit from future upgrades with die-electronic modules.

Dielectric Spectroscopy of Palm Olein During Batch Deep Frying and Their Relation with Degradation Parameters.

Total polar compounds (TPC) and free fatty acids (FFA) are important indicators in evaluating the quality of frying oil. Conventional methods to determine TPC and FFA are often time consuming, involved laboratory analyses which required skilled personnel and used substantial amount of harmful solvent. In this study, dielectric spectroscopy technique was used to investigate the relation between dielectric property of refined, bleached and deodorized palm olein (RBDPO) during deep frying with TPC and FFA. In total, 150 batches of French fries were intermittently fried at 185 ± 5 °C for 7 hr a day over 5 consecutive days. A total of 30 frying oil samples were collected. The dielectric property of frying oil samples were measured using impedance analyzer with frequencies ranging from 100 Hz to 10 MHz. The TPC of frying oil samples were measured with a Testo 270, while the FFA analysis was done using Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) test method. Results showed that dielectric constant, TPC and FFA of RBDPO increased as the frying time increased. Dielectric constant increased from 3.09 to 3.17, while TPC and FFA increased from 9.96 to 19.52 and from 0.08% to 0.36%, respectively. Partial least square (PLS) analysis produced good prediction of TPC and FFA with the application of genetic algorithm (GA). Model developed for prediction of TPC and FFA yielded highly significant correlation with R2 of 0.91 and 0.95, respectively and both had root mean square error in cross-validation (RMSECV) of 1.06%. This study demonstrates the potential of dielectric spectroscopy in monitoring palm olein degradation during frying. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The application of dielectric spectroscopy to detect degradation of palm olein during frying was studied. The dielectric property of palm olein during frying has successfully correlated with TPC and FFA. The model developed in this study could be used for the development of a sensing system for palm olein degradation monitoring.

Micro-Raman Spectroscopy for Monitoring of Deposition Quality of High-k Stack Protective Layer onto Nanowire FET Chips for Highly Sensitive miRNA Detection.

Application of micro-Raman spectroscopy for the monitoring of quality of high-k (h-k) dielectric protective layer deposition onto the surface of a nanowire (NW) chip has been demonstrated. A NW chip based on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structures, protected with a layer of high-k dielectric ((h-k)-SOI-NW chip), has been employed for highly sensitive detection of microRNA (miRNA) associated with oncological diseases. The protective dielectric included a 2-nm-thick Al2O3 surface layer and a 8-nm-thick HfO2 layer, deposited onto a silicon SOI-NW chip. Such a chip had increased time stability upon operation in solution, as compared with an unprotected SOI-NW chip with native oxide. The (h-k)-SOI-NW biosensor has been employed for the detection of DNA oligonucleotide (oDNA), which is a synthetic analogue of miRNA-21 associated with oncological diseases. To provide biospecificity of the detection, the surface of (h-k)-SOI-NW chip was modified with oligonucleotide probe molecules (oDVA probes) complementary to the sequence of the target biomolecule. Concentration sensitivity of the (h-k)-SOI-NW biosensor at the level of DL~10-16 M has been demonstrated.

Multiplexed electrochemical detection of three cardiac biomarkers cTnI, cTnT and BNP using nanostructured ZnO-sensing platform.

AIM: Development of a label-free multiplexed point-of-care diagnostic device for a panel of cardiac biomarkers - cardiac troponin-T (cTnT), troponin-I (cTnI) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). METHODS: A nonfaradaic electrochemical immunoassay designed with anisotropic high surface area ZnO nanostructures grown using low-temperature hydrothermal methods was selectively immobilized with capture antibodies. Multiplexed detection in human serum using ZnO nanostructures based on complementary electrochemical measurement techniques - electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and Mott-Schottky. RESULTS: Linear signal response for detection of three biomarkers in human serum with dynamic range of 1 pg/ml-100 ng/ml and limit of detection at 1 pg/ml and low signal response to background interferences was achieved. CONCLUSION: First demonstration of simultaneous detection of three cardiac biomarkers in clinically relevant range with sensor's analytical performance and linear response of detection showed potential utility in screening clinical samples for early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction and chronic heart failure.

A novel 384-multiwell microelectrode array for the impedimetric monitoring of Tau protein induced neurodegenerative processes.

Over the last decades, countless bioelectronic monitoring systems were developed for the analysis of cells as well as complex tissues. Most studies addressed the sensitivity and specificity of the bioelectronic detection method in comparison to classical molecular biological assays. In contrast, the up scaling as a prerequisite for the practical application of these novel bioelectronic monitoring systems is mostly only discussed theoretically. In this context, we developed a novel 384-multiwell microelectrode array (MMEA) based measurement system for the sensitive label-free real-time monitoring of neurodegenerative processes by impedance spectroscopy. With respect to the needs of productive screening systems for robust and reproducible measurements on high numbers of plates, we focused on reducing the critical contacting of more than 400 electrodes for a 384-MMEA. Therefore, we introduced an on top array of immersive counter electrodes that are individually addressed by a multiplexer and connected all measurement electrodes on the 384-MMEA to a single contact point. More strikingly, our novel approach provided a comparable signal stability and sensitivity similar to an array with integrated counter electrodes. Next, we optimized a SH-SY5Y cell based tauopathy model by introducing a novel 5-fold Tau mutation eliminating the need of artificial tauopathy induction. In combination with our novel 384-MMEA based measurement system, the concentration and time dependent neuroregenerative effect of the kinase inhibitor SRN-003-556 could be quantitatively monitored. Thus, our novel screening system could be a useful tool to identify and develop potential novel therapeutics in the field of Tau-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of Manual Lymphatic Drainage After Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) on knee swelling and the assumed consequences of swelling after total knee arthroplasty (TKA). DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Primary care hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Two groups of 30 patients were randomized before TKA surgery (N=60; 65% women [39]; mean age, 70.7±8.8y; weight, 77.8±11.3kg; size, 1.64±0.08m; body mass index, 29.9±4.1kg/m(2)). INTERVENTIONS: Participants received either 5 MLD treatments or a placebo, added to rehabilitation, in between the second day and the seventh day after surgery. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Swelling was measured by blinded evaluators before surgery and at second day, seventh day, and 3 months using bioimpedance spectroscopy and volume measurement. Secondary outcomes were active and passive range of motion, pain, knee function, and gait parameters. RESULTS: At seventh day and 3 months, no outcome was significantly different between groups, except for the knee passive flexion contracture at 3 months, which was lower and less frequent in the MLD group (-2.6°; 95% confidence interval, -5.0° to -0.21°; P=.04; absolute risk reduction, 26.6%; 95% confidence interval, 0.9%-52.3%; number needed to treat, 4). The mean pain level decreased between 5.8 and 8.2mm on the visual analog scale immediately after MLD, which was significant after 4 of 5 MLD treatments. CONCLUSIONS: MLD treatments applied immediately after TKA surgery did not reduce swelling. It reduced pain immediately after the treatment. Further studies should investigate whether the positive effect of MLD on knee extension is replicable.

Specific and selective electrochemical immunoassay for Pseudomonas aeruginosa based on pectin-gold nano composite.

In this report, we have successfully fabricated an immunosensor for detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in water. The monoclonal antibody was immobilized on the surface modified with CCLP (Calcium Cross-Linked Pectin)-Au NPs (gold nanoparticles)/Glassy Carbon Electrode. The building of the immunosensor was evaluated in each step by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The electrochemical detection was done based on the anti rabbit IgG HRP (Horseradish Peroxidase) which binds to the immune complex and the response was observed using Hydro Quininone (HQ) and Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in PB (Phosphate Buffer) electrolyte. From the results, the sensitivity range is from 10(1) to 10(7)CFU/ml and LOD is calculated as 9×10(2)CFU/ml. The developed immunosensor also have high selectivity, stability, reproducibility and reusability.

Highly sensitive electrochemical impedance spectroscopy immunosensor for the detection of AFB1 in olive oil.

Aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are commonly found in olive and its derivatives. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a predominant toxin detected abundantly and has been implicated in the etiology of human hepatocellular carcinoma. This study proposes a sensitive and convenient electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) method for determining AFB1 by MWCNTs/RTIL composite films-based immunosensor. The calibration curve for AFB1 was linear in the range of 0.1-10ngmL(-1) with the limit of detection (LOD) 0.03ngmL(-1). The presence of MWCNTs warrant fast electron transfer, and the ionic liquid provides a benign microenvironment for antibody. The experimental parameters, such as pH and incubating time, have been investigated and optimized. Furthermore, the detection of AFB1 is presented to test this method after extracted from olive oils. It can be anticipated that this method would be used for the detection of AFB1 in various agriculture products and vegetable oils.

A high accuracy broadband measurement system for time resolved complex bioimpedance measurements.

Bioimpedance measurements are useful tools in biomedical engineering and life science. Bioimpedance is the electrical impedance of living tissue and can be used in the analysis of various physiological parameters. Bioimpedance is commonly measured by injecting a small well known alternating current via surface electrodes into an object under test and measuring the resultant surface voltages. It is non-invasive, painless and has no known hazards. This work presents a field programmable gate array based high accuracy broadband bioimpedance measurement system for time resolved bioimpedance measurements. The system is able to measure magnitude and phase of complex impedances under test in a frequency range of about 10-500 kHz with excitation currents from 10 µA to 5 mA. The overall measurement uncertainties stay below 1% for the impedance magnitude and below 0.5° for the phase in most measurement ranges. Furthermore, the described system has a sample rate of up to 3840 impedance spectra per second. The performance of the bioimpedance measurement system is demonstrated with a resistor based system calibration and with measurements on biological samples.

Introducing a new method for evaluation of the interaction between an antigen and an antibody: single frequency impedance analysis for biosensing systems.

This paper illustrates the application of an antibody, anti-parathyroid hormone (anti-PTH), as a bioreceptor in a biosensor system for the first time, and demonstrates how this biosensor can be used in parathyroid hormone (PTH) determination. The interaction between the biosensor and parathyroid hormone was firstly investigated by a novel electrochemical method, single frequency impedance analysis. The biosensor was based on the gold electrode modified by cysteine self-assembled monolayers. Anti-PTH was covalently immobilized onto cysteine layer by using an EDC/NHS couple. The immobilization of anti-PTH was monitored by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques. The performance of the biosensor was evaluated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, repeatability and reproducibility, after a few important optimization studies were carried out. In particular, parathyroid hormone was detected within a linear range of 10-60 fg/mL. Kramers-Kronig transform was also performed on the impedance data. The specificity of the biosensor was also evaluated. The biosensor was validated by using a complementary reference technique. Lastly the developed biosensor was used to monitor PTH levels in artificial serum samples.

Sensor spacing affects the tissue impedance spectra of rabbit ventricular epicardium.

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that a complex composite impedance spectra develops when stimulation and recording of cardiac muscle with sufficiently fine spatial resolution in a four-electrode configuration is used. With traditional (millimeter scale) separations, the ratio between the recorded interstitial central potential difference and total supplied interstitial current is constant at all frequencies. This occurs because the fraction of supplied current that redistributes to the intracellular compartment depends on effective membrane resistance between electrodes, which is low, to a much greater extent than effective membrane capacitance. The spectra should therefore change with finer separations at which effective membrane resistance increases, as supplied current will remain primarily interstitial at lower frequencies and redistribute between compartments at higher frequencies. To test this hypothesis, we built arrays with sensors separated (d) by 804 µm, 452 µm, and 252 µm; positioned those arrays across myocyte axes on rabbit ventricular epicardium; and resolved spectra in terms of resistivity (ρt) and reactivity (χt) over the 10 Hz to 4,000 Hz range. With all separations, we measured comparable spectra with predictions from passive membrane simulations that used a three-dimensional structural framework in which intracellular, interstitial, and membrane properties were prescribed based on the limited data available from the literature. At the finest separation, we found mean ρt at 100 Hz and 4,000 Hz that lowered from 395 Ω-cm to 236 Ω-cm, respectively, with maximal mean χt of 160 Ω-cm. This experimental confirmation of spectra development in whole heart experiments is important because such development is central to achieve measurements of intracellular and interstitial passive electrical properties in cardiac electrophysiological experiments using only interstitial access.

Whole blood platelet aggregation and release reaction testing in uremic patients.

BACKGROUND: Platelet function analysis utilizing platelet-rich plasma and optical density based aggregometry fails to identify patients at risk for uremia associated complications. METHODS: We employed whole blood platelet aggregation analysis based on impedance as well as determination of ATP release from platelet granules detected by a chemiluminescence method. Ten chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 4 or 5 predialysis patients underwent platelet evaluation. Our study aims to evaluate this platform in this patient population to determine if abnormalities could be detected. RESULTS: Analysis revealed normal aggregation and ATP release to collagen, ADP, and high-dose ristocetin. ATP release had a low response to arachidonic acid (0.37 ± 0.26 nmoles, reference range: 0.6-1.4 nmoles). Platelet aggregation to low-dose ristocetin revealed an exaggerated response (20.9 ± 18.7 ohms, reference range: 0-5 ohms). CONCLUSIONS: Whole blood platelet analysis detected platelet dysfunction which may be associated with bleeding and thrombotic risks in uremia. Diminished ATP release to arachidonic acid (an aspirin-like defect) in uremic patients may result in platelet associated bleeding. An increased aggregation response to low-dose ristocetin (a type IIb von Willebrand disease-like defect) is associated with thrombus formation. This platelet hyperreactivity may be associated with a thrombotic diathesis as seen in some uremic patients.

Post-implantation impedance spectroscopy of subretinal micro-electrode arrays, OCT imaging and numerical simulation: towards a more precise neuroprosthesis monitoring tool.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that single-frequency impedance measurements could provide useful information about the distance between the neuroprosthesis and the retina. This work investigates the use of impedance spectroscopy in monitoring subretinal implantations of flexible micro-electrode arrays and focuses on determining what is governing impedance profiles. APPROACH: In this study, we use impedance spectroscopy together with optical coherence tomography imaging and numerical simulation to quantitatively evaluate the constituent elements of measured impedance. MAIN RESULTS: We show the existence of specific impedance spectrum profiles for retinal detection and retinal detachment that are in good agreement with numerical simulations. These simulations suggest that monopolar impedance is mainly influenced by the subretinal space. Numerical simulations also provide a quantitative prediction of the lateral spread of current density in the vicinity of the measuring contact as a function of retina-electrode distance. SIGNIFICANCE: In general, our results point to the need for scanning a large frequency range for impedance measurements since capacitive and resistive regimes are strongly dependent on retina-electrode proximity. We believe that these results will contribute to a better understanding of electrical stimulation in neuroprostheses and ultimately improve their efficiency.

Dielectric spectroscopy as a viable biosensing tool for cell and tissue characterization and analysis.

The use of dielectric spectroscopy to carry out real time observations of cells and to extract a wealth of information about their physiological properties has expanded in recent years. This popularity is due to the simple, easy to use, non-invasive and real time nature of dielectric spectroscopy. The ease of integrating dielectric spectroscopy with microfluidic devices has allowed the technology to further expand into biomedical research. Dielectric spectra are obtained by applying an electrical signal to cells, which is swept over a frequency range. This review covers the different methods of interpreting dielectric spectra and progress made in applications of impedance spectroscopy for cell observations. First, methods of obtaining specific electrical properties of cells (cell membrane capacitance and cytoplasm conductivity) are discussed. These electrical properties are obtained by fitting the dielectric spectra to different models and equations. Integrating models to reduce the effects of the electrical double layer are subsequently covered. Impedance platforms are then discussed including electrical cell substrate impedance sensing (ECIS). Categories of ECIS systems are divided into microelectrode arrays, interdigitated electrodes and those that allow differential ECIS measurements. Platforms that allow single cell and sub-single cell measurements are then discussed. Finally, applications of impedance spectroscopy in a range of cell observations are elaborated. These applications include observing cell differentiation, mitosis and the cell cycle and cytotoxicity/cell death. Future applications such as drug screening and in point of care applications are then covered.

Investigation of microwave dielectric properties of biodiesel components.

Advanced microwave technology has the potential to significantly enhance the biodiesel production process. Knowledge of dielectric properties of materials plays a major role in microwave design for any process. Dielectric properties (ε' and ε") of biodiesel precursors: soybean oil, alcohols and catalyst and their different mixtures were measured using a vector network analyzer and a slim probe in an open ended coaxial probe method at four different temperatures (30, 45, 60 and 75 °C) and in the frequency range of 280 MHz to 4.5 GHz. Results indicate that the microwave dielectric properties depend significantly on both temperature and frequency. Addition of catalyst significantly affected the dielectric properties. Dielectric properties behaved differently when oil, alcohol and catalyst was mixed at room temperature before heating and when the oil and the alcohol catalyst mixture was heated separately to a pre-determined temperature before mixing. These results can be used in designing microwave based transesterification system.

Monitoring real-time enzymatic hydrolysis of Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS) by dielectric spectroscopy following hydrothermal pre-treatment by steam explosion.

Dielectric spectroscopy (DS) has been used to monitor the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass by measuring its dielectric state. However, it is unknown whether following steam explosion (SE) pre-treatment, lignocellulose would still maintain a dielectric state, and, if maintained, whether the dissipation during enzymatic hydrolysis could be monitored. Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS), pre-treated by SE, was found to have a capacitance (C = 580 kHz) of approximately 24 pF cm(-1). Following addition of full-strength cellulolytic cocktail A (CC-A; R(2) = 0.97) and 1/3 strength cocktail B (CC-B; R(2) = 0.96), a natural logarithmic decay in capacitance was determined. Furthermore, the DS biomass probes quantified the initial linear rate of dissipation in capacitance during hydrolysis. The rate of CC-B was 34% that of CC-A. These data extend scope and utility of DS biomass probes for monitoring the enzymatic hydrolysis of SE-pre-treated lignocellulosic substrates in real-time.