Patient treatment cost of oral diseases in Ghana

Objectives: To estimate patient treatment cost of oral diseases in Ghana Design: A cross-sectional study design using cost-of-illness analysis was employed Setting: The study was conducted at the dental unit of the University of Ghana Hospital, Legon Participants: About185 patients attending the dental unit of the hospital were selected Interventions: None Main outcome measures: Direct medical and non-medical costs, indirect costs, and intangible costs of treatment of oral conditions Results: The estimated average cost of treatment for oral diseases was US$ 35.75. The total cost was US$ 6,614.11, with the direct and indirect costs constituting 94.5% and 5.5%, respectively of the total cost. Direct medical costs constituted 86.9%, while direct non-medical costs constituted 13.1% of the total direct cost. The richer socio-economic group had the highest cost per quintile, with a mean of US$ 46.69. The intangible cost described was highest for pain (47.1%), followed by difficulty in eating (40.8%) and sleeping (34.6%) for both men and women. Conclusion: The costs of oral diseases are huge and cannot be overlooked. Oral diseases also pose significant productivity losses to patients

Schizochytrium sp. Dietary supplementation modify Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) transcriptional regulation in monocytes and neutrophils of dairy goats.

Animals protect themselves against pathogens or abiotic factors by innate or adaptive mechanisms. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3) of microalgae modify both human and mice' immune systems resulting in a beneficial balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways. However, scarce information exists on their impact on lactating animals' immunity. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of dietary inclusion of Schizochytrium sp. (rich in docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid), on the expression of several genes involved in the innate immunity of goats. Twenty-four dairy goats were divided into four homogeneous sub-groups (n = 6). All goats were fed individually with alfalfa hay and concentrate. The concentrate of the control group (CON) had no microalgae while those of the treated groups were supplemented daily with 20 (ALG20), 40 (ALG40), and 60 (ALG60) g Schizochytrium sp. Monocytes and neutrophils were isolated from goats' blood in the 20th, 40th, and 60th days from the beginning of the experimental period. The relative transcript levels of TLR4, MYD88, MAPK, IRF3, IFNG, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1B, IL2, IL8, TNF), and chemokines (CCL5 and CXCL16) were decreased in monocytes of microalgae treated goats compared to the CON. In contrast, MAPK and IL1B relative transcript levels were increased in neutrophils of ALG40 and ALG60 groups. In conclusion, the supplementation of goats' diet with 20 g Schizochytrium sp. resulted in a downregulation of the pro-inflammatory transcriptions, and following further research could be considered as a sustainable alternative strategy to improve immune function.

Bioresonance therapy may treat depression.

The aim of the study was to evaluate if bioresonance therapy can offer quantifiable results in patients with recurrent major depressive disorder and with mild, moderate, or severe depressive episodes by decreasing the level of depression due to the application of bioresonance therapy as independently or complementary treatment. The study included 140 patients suffering from depression, divided into three groups. The first group (40 patients) received solely bioresonance therapy, the second group (40 patients) received pharmacological treatment with antidepressants combined with bioresonance therapy, and the third group (60 patients) received solely pharmacological treatment with antidepressants. The assessment of depression was made using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, with 17 items, at the beginning of the bioresonance treatment and the end of the five weeks of treatment, aiming to decrease the level of depression. The study identified the existence of a statistically significant difference for the treatment methods applied to the analyzed groups (p=0.0001), and we found that the therapy accelerates the healing process in patients with depressive disorders. Improvement was observed for the analyzed groups, with a decrease of the mean values between the initial and final phase of the level of depression, of delta for Hamilton score of 3.1, 3.8 and 2.3, respectively. We concluded that the bioresonance therapy could be useful in the treatment of recurrent major depressive disorder with moderate depressive episodes independently or as a complementary therapy to antidepressants.

Optimization of the Vacuum Microwave Assisted Extraction of the Natural Polyphenols and Flavonoids from the Raw Solid Waste of the Pomegranate Juice Producing Industry at Industrial Scale.

Pomegranate pomace (PP) is the solid waste produced in bulk by the pomegranate juice industry which is rich in polyphenols and flavonoids that can replace the hazardous chemical antioxidants/antimicrobials currently used in the agro-food and cosmetics sectors. In the present work, the vacuum microwave assisted extraction (VMAE) of natural antioxidants from raw pomegranate pomace was investigated and successfully optimized at an industrial scale. For the optimization of PP VMAE a novel, highly accurate response surface methodology (RSM) based on a comprehensive multi-point historical design was employed. The optimization showed that the maximum recovery of PP total polyphenols as well as total PP flavonoids were obtained at microwave power = 4961.07 W, water to pomace ratio = 29.9, extraction time = 119.53 min and microwave power = 4147.76 W, water to pomace ratio = 19.32, extraction time = 63.32 min respectively. Moreover, the optimal VMAE conditions on economic grounds were determined to be: microwave power = 2048.62 W, water to pomace ratio = 23.11, extraction time = 15.04 min and microwave power = 4008.62 W, water to pomace ratio = 18.08, extraction time = 15.29 min for PP total polyphenols and PP total flavonoids respectively. The main conclusion of this study is that the VMAE extraction can be successfully used at industrial scale to produce, in economic manner, high added value natural extracts from PP pomace.

Dynamic sentiment spillovers among crude oil, gold, and Bitcoin markets: Evidence from time and frequency domain analyses.

This paper examines the sentiment spillovers among oil, gold, and Bitcoin markets by employing spillovers index methods in a time-frequency framework. We find that the total sentiment spillover among crude oil, gold and Bitcoin markets is time-varying and is greatly affected by major market events. The directional sentiment spillovers are also time-varying. On average, the Bitcoin market is the major transmitter of directional sentiment spillovers, whereas the crude oil and gold markets are the major receivers. In particular, the sentiment spillover effects are major created at high-frequency components, implying that the markets rapidly process the sentiment spillover effects and the shock is transmitted over the short-term. Moreover, we also find that the sentiment spillover effects differ significantly in term of intensity and direction when compared with return and volatility spillover effects. The present study has certain applications for investors and policymakers.

N-Way NIR Data Treatment through PARAFAC in the Evaluation of Protective Effect of Antioxidants in Soybean Oil.

The use of chemometric tools is progressing to scientific areas where analytical chemistry is present, such as food science. In analytical food evaluation, oils represent an important field, allowing the exploration of the antioxidant effects of herbs and seeds. However, traditional methodologies have some drawbacks which must be overcome, such as being time-consuming, requiring sample preparation, the use of solvents/reagents, and the generation of toxic waste. The objective of this study is to evaluate the protective effect provided by plant-based substances (directly, or as extracts), including pumpkin seeds, poppy seeds, dehydrated goji berry, and Provençal herbs, against the oxidation of antioxidant-free soybean oil. Synthetic antioxidants tert-butylhydroquinone and butylated hydroxytoluene were also considered. The evaluation was made through thermal degradation of soybean oil at different temperatures, and near-infrared spectroscopy was employed in an n-way mode, coupled with Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC) to extract nontrivial information. The results for PARAFAC indicated that factor 1 shows oxidation product information, while factor 2 presents results regarding the antioxidant effect. The plant-based extract was more effective in improving the frying stability of soybean oil. It was also possible to observe that while the oxidation product concentration increased, the antioxidant concentration decreased as the temperature increased. The proposed method is shown to be a simple and fast way to obtain information on the protective effects of antioxidant additives in edible oils, and has an encouraging potential for use in other applications.

SHAMAN: a user-friendly website for metataxonomic analysis from raw reads to statistical analysis.

BACKGROUND: Comparing the composition of microbial communities among groups of interest (e.g., patients vs healthy individuals) is a central aspect in microbiome research. It typically involves sequencing, data processing, statistical analysis and graphical display. Such an analysis is normally obtained by using a set of different applications that require specific expertise for installation, data processing and in some cases, programming skills. RESULTS: Here, we present SHAMAN, an interactive web application we developed in order to facilitate the use of (i) a bioinformatic workflow for metataxonomic analysis, (ii) a reliable statistical modelling and (iii) to provide the largest panel of interactive visualizations among the applications that are currently available. SHAMAN is specifically designed for non-expert users. A strong benefit is to use an integrated version of the different analytic steps underlying a proper metagenomic analysis. The application is freely accessible at http://shaman.pasteur.fr/ , and may also work as a standalone application with a Docker container (aghozlane/shaman), conda and R. The source code is written in R and is available at https://github.com/aghozlane/shaman . Using two different datasets (a mock community sequencing and a published 16S rRNA metagenomic data), we illustrate the strengths of SHAMAN in quickly performing a complete metataxonomic analysis. CONCLUSIONS: With SHAMAN, we aim at providing the scientific community with a platform that simplifies reproducible quantitative analysis of metagenomic data.

Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in the Netherlands: a comparison between a nationwide survey in midwifery practices and extrapolation-model.

BACKGROUND: Owing to migration, female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C) has become a growing concern in host countries in which FGM/C is not familiar. There is a need for reliable estimates of FGM/C prevalence to inform medical and public health policy. We aimed to advance methodology for estimating the prevalence of FGM/C in diaspora by determining the prevalence of FGM/C among women giving birth in the Netherlands. METHODS: Two methods were applied to estimate the prevalence of FGM/C in women giving birth: (I) direct estimation of FGM/C was performed through a nationwide survey of all midwifery practices in the Netherlands and (II) the extrapolation model was adopted for indirect estimation of FGM/C, by applying population-based-survey data on FGM/C in country of origin to migrant women who gave birth in 2018 in the Netherlands. RESULTS: A nationwide survey among primary care midwifery practices that provided care for 57.5% of all deliveries in 2018 in the Netherlands, reported 523 cases of FGM/C, constituting FGM/C prevalence of 0.54%. The indirect estimation of FGM/C in an extrapolation-model resulted in an estimated prevalence of 1.55%. Possible reasons for the difference in FGM/C prevalence between direct- and indirect estimation include that the midwives were not being able to recognize, record or classify FGM/C, referral to an obstetrician before assessing FGM/C status of women and selective responding to the survey. Also, migrants might differ from people in their country of origin in terms of acculturation toward discontinuation of the practice. This may have contributed to the higher indirect-estimation of FGM/C compared to direct estimation of FGM/C. CONCLUSIONS: The current study has provided insight into direct estimation of FGM/C through a survey of midwifery practices in the Netherlands. Evidence based on midwifery practices data can be regarded as a minimum benchmark for actual prevalence among the subpopulation of women who gave birth in a given year.

Statistical shape analysis of tap roots: a methodological case study on laser scanned sugar beets.

BACKGROUND: The efficient and robust statistical analysis of the shape of plant organs of different cultivars is an important investigation issue in plant breeding and enables a robust cultivar description within the breeding progress. Laserscanning is a highly accurate and high resolution technique to acquire the 3D shape of plant surfaces. The computation of a shape based principal component analysis (PCA) built on concepts from continuum mechanics has proven to be an effective tool for a qualitative and quantitative shape examination. RESULTS: The shape based PCA was used for a statistical analysis of 140 sugar beet roots of different cultivars. The calculation of the mean sugar beet root shape and the description of the main variations was possible. Furthermore, unknown and individual tap roots could be attributed to their cultivar by means of a robust classification tool based on the PCA results. CONCLUSION: The method demonstrates that it is possible to identify principal modes of root shape variations automatically and to quantify associated variances out of laserscanned 3D sugar beet tap root models. The introduced approach is not limited to the 3D shape description by laser scanning. A transfer to 3D MRI or radar data is also conceivable.

Misleading Epidemiological and Statistical Evidence in the Presence of Simpson's Paradox: An Illustrative Study Using Simulated Scenarios of Observational Study Designs.

This study empirically illustrates the mechanism by which epidemiological effect measures and statistical evidence can be misleading in the presence of Simpson's paradox and identify possible alternative methods of analysis to manage the paradox. Three scenarios of observational study designs, including cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control approaches, are simulated. In each scenario, data are generated, and various methods of epidemiological and statistical analyses are undertaken to obtain empirical results that illustrate Simpson's paradox and mislead conclusions. Rational methods of analysis are also performed to illustrate how to avoid pitfalls and obtain valid results. In the presence of Simpson's paradox, results from analyses in overall data contradict the findings from all subgroups of the same data. This paradox occurs when distributions of confounding characteristics are unequal in the groups being compared. Data analysis methods which do not take confounding factor into account, including epidemiological 2×2 table analysis, independent samples t-test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test, chi-square test, and univariable regression analysis, cannot manage the problem of Simpson's paradox and mislead research conclusions. Mantel-Haenszel procedure and multivariable regression methods are examples of rational analysis methods leading to valid results. Therefore, Simpson's paradox arises as a consequence of extreme unequal distributions of a specific inherent characteristic in groups being compared. Analytical methods which take control of confounding effect must be applied to manage the paradox and obtain valid research evidence regarding the causal association.

Identifying and characterizing extrapolation in multivariate response data.

Faced with limitations in data availability, funding, and time constraints, ecologists are often tasked with making predictions beyond the range of their data. In ecological studies, it is not always obvious when and where extrapolation occurs because of the multivariate nature of the data. Previous work on identifying extrapolation has focused on univariate response data, but these methods are not directly applicable to multivariate response data, which are common in ecological investigations. In this paper, we extend previous work that identified extrapolation by applying the predictive variance from the univariate setting to the multivariate case. We propose using the trace or determinant of the predictive variance matrix to obtain a scalar value measure that, when paired with a selected cutoff value, allows for delineation between prediction and extrapolation. We illustrate our approach through an analysis of jointly modeled lake nutrients and indicators of algal biomass and water clarity in over 7000 inland lakes from across the Northeast and Mid-west US. In addition, we outline novel exploratory approaches for identifying regions of covariate space where extrapolation is more likely to occur using classification and regression trees. The use of our Multivariate Predictive Variance (MVPV) measures and multiple cutoff values when exploring the validity of predictions made from multivariate statistical models can help guide ecological inferences.

Drug interactions and adverse events in a cohort of Warfarin users attending Public Health Clinics / Interações medicamentosas e eventos adversos em uma coorte de usuários de varfarina que freqüentam clínicas de saúde pública

Background: Warfarin is an oral anticoagulant involved in important interactions with foods and other drugs. Objectives: To evaluate the occurrence of adverse events reported by warfarin users and their relationship with drug interactions. Methods: This was an open cohort, prospective study conducted in an 18-month period with warfarin users attending public health clinics of the city of Ijuí, Brazil. Data were collected by means of interviews administered at patients' home every month. Patients' responses were confirmed by review of medical records when patients sought medical care. Data were analyzed by descriptive statistics. Potential drug interactions were evaluated in a database and vitamin K consumption was quantified using a validated method. Results: A total of 68 patients were followed-up; 63 completed the study and 5 died in the study period. Mean number of medications taken by the patients was 9.6 ± 4.5, and mean number of interactions involving warfarin was 2.91 ± 1.52. Most potential interactions increased the risk of bleeding, 61 of them severe interactions and 116 moderate interactions. Eighty-seven episodes of bleeding and 4 episodes of thrombosis were reported by a total of 37 and 4 patients, respectively. At the occurrence of these events, 56.5% of warfarin users were also taking omeprazole, 35.9% were taking simvastatin and 25.0% paracetamol. Most patients had a low vitamin K intake. Conclusions: A high frequency of potential interactions between warfarin and other drugs was detected, but a low intake of foods that could possibly affect the effects of warfarin was observed. Based on our results, it seems prudent to follow patients on warfarin therapy for drug-drug interactions, aiming to control adverse effects and to promote a safe and effective therapy

The effect of diclofenac sodium on neural tube development in the early stage of chick embryos.

BACKGROUND: Neural tube defects are congenital malformations of the central nervous system. Genetic predisposition and some environmental factors play an important role in the development of neural tube defects. This study aimed to investigate the effects of diclofenac sodium on the neural tube development in a chick embryo model that corresponds to the first month of vertebral deve- lopment in mammals. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seventy-five fertile, specific pathogen-free eggs were incubated for 28 h and were divided into five groups of 15 eggs each. Diclofenac sodium was administered via the sub-blastodermic route at this stage. Incubation was continued till the end of the 48th h. All eggs were then opened and embryos were dissected from embryonic membranes and evaluated morphologically and histopathologically. RESULTS: It was determined that the use of increasing doses of diclofenac sodium led to defects of midline closure in early chicken embryos. There were statistically significant differences in neural tube positions (open or close) among the groups. In addition; crown-rump length, somite number were significantly decreased in high dose experimental groups compared with control group. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that development of neurons is affected in chi- cken embryos after administration of diclofenac sodium. The exact teratogenic mechanism of diclofenac sodium is not clear; therefore it should be investigated.

Developing and evaluating an online learning tool to improve midwives' accuracy of visual estimation of blood loss during waterbirth: An experimental study.

OBJECTIVE: The principal objective was to test the effectiveness of an online learning tool to improve midwives' accuracy of blood loss estimations in a birthing pool environment. The secondary objective was to assess the acceptability of the online learning tool to the midwives using it. DESIGN: A one group pre-test, post-test experiment with immediate and six weeks follow-up to test ability together with an online questionnaire to assess perceived usefulness of an online learning tool. SETTING: A large NHS maternity hospital comprising an acute care obstetric unit, a small district unit labour ward, one alongside midwifery-led unit and three freestanding midwifery-led units. PARTICIPANTS: Volunteer NHS employed midwives who had experience in caring for women labouring and giving birth in water (n = 24). INTERVENTION: An online learning tool comprising six randomly ordered short video simulations of blood loss in a birthing pool in real time, and a tutorial giving verbal and pictorial guidance on making accurate blood loss estimations in water was developed then piloted. Midwives' accuracy scores for estimating blood loss in each of the videos were calculated at three timepoints; pre and immediately post the learning component, and six weeks later. The estimated blood loss volume was subtracted from the actual blood loss volume, to give the difference between estimated and real blood loss in millilitres (ml) which was then converted to percentage difference to standardise comparison across the six volumes. The differences between pre- and post-learning for each of the six blood volumes was analysed using a repeated measures ANOVA. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. An online questionnaire incorporated questions using Likert scales to gauge confidence and competence and free text. Free text responses were analysed using a modified form of inductive content analysis. FINDINGS: Twenty-two midwives completed the online learning and immediate post-test, 14 completed a post-test after six weeks, and 15 responded to the online questionnaire. Pre-test results showed under-estimation of all blood loss volumes and particularly for the two largest volumes (1000 and 1100 ml). Across all volumes, accuracy of estimation was significantly improved at post-test 1. Accuracy diminished slightly, but overall improvement remained, at post-test 2. Participants rated the online tool positively and made suggestions for refining it. KEY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: This is the first study measuring the accuracy of midwives' blood loss estimations in a birthing pool using real-time simulations and testing the effectiveness of an online learning tool to improve this important skill. Our findings indicate a need to develop interventions to improve midwives' accuracy at visually estimating blood loss in water, and the potential of an online approach. Most women who labour and/or give birth in water do so in midwifery-led settings without immediate access to medical support. Accuracy in blood loss estimations is an essential core skill.

Traces of statistical learning in the brain's functional connectivity after artificial language exposure.

Our environment is full of statistical regularities, and we are attuned to learn about these regularities by employing Statistical Learning (SL), a domain-general ability that enables the implicit detection of probabilistic regularities in our surrounding environment. The role of brain connectivity on SL has been previously explored, highlighting the relevance of structural and functional connections between frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices. However, whether SL can induce changes in the functional connections of the resting state brain has yet to be investigated. To address this question, we applied a pre-post design where participants (n = 38) were submitted to resting-state fMRI acquisition before and after in-scanner exposure to either an artificial language stream (formed by 4 concatenated words) or a random audio stream. Our results showed that exposure to an artificial language stream significantly changed (corrected p < 0.05) the functional connectivity between Right Posterior Cingulum and Left Superior Parietal Lobule. This suggests that functional connectivity between brain networks supporting attentional and working memory processes may play an important role in statistical learning.

Clinical Research from a Health Insurance Database: Practice and Perspective / 대한내과학회지

Health insurance big data not only provide real-world evidence of unmet needs in actual clinical practice but also of breakthroughs in the medical industry which will shape the future of health care. Big data are also expected to transform the existing medical paradigm and provide a truly personalized medical age. However, questions about research through the collection and utilization of various big data in various fields have also been raised because quality limitations cannot be overlooked. Therefore, many challenges remain to be overcome in the use of big data research as a basis for changing medical practice. Intervention and interpretation by clinical medical experts are required in judging the scientific trustworthiness of the big data analysis process and the validity of the results. Therefore, healthcare big data research cannot achieve its goal by the efforts of researchers alone. Teams of data analysis scientists, epidemiologists, statistics experts, and clinical researchers are required to collaborate closely with team members, from the design phase to expert consultation, through regular meetings. In addition, it is necessary, in the creation of a healthier community, to cooperate with government agencies that provide data based on the whole nation or the world's population, as well as interest groups representing the people, and policy-making organizations. In this paper, we describe the knowledge, practical clinical applications, and future research directions and prospects for the next phase of health care, from the design of clinical research using health insurance big data to report writing.

Acupuncture for Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE: To assess the effectiveness and safety of acupuncture for erectile dysfunction (ED). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched six major English and Chinese databases included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) testing acupuncture alone or in combination for ED. Dichotomous data were presented as risk ratio (RR) and continuous data were presented as mean difference (MD) both with 95% confidence interval (CI). The Revman (v.5.3) was used for data analyses. Quality of evidence across studies was assessed by the online GRADEpro tool. RESULTS: We identified 22 RCTs, fourteen of them involving psychogenic ED. Most of the included RCTs had high or unclear risk of bias. There was no difference between electro-acupuncture and sham acupuncture with electrical stimulation on the rate of satisfaction and self-assessment (RR, 1.50; 95% CI, 0.71–3.16; 1 trial). Acupuncture combined with tadalafil appeared to have better effect on increasing cure rate (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.00–1.71; 2 trials), and International Index of Erectile Function-5 scores (MD, 5.38; 95% CI, 4.46–6.29; 2 trials). When acupuncture plus herbal medicine compared with herbal medicine alone, the combination therapy showed significant better improvement in erectile function (RR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.31–2.15; 7 trials). Only two trials reported facial red and dizziness cases, and needle sticking and pruritus cases in acupuncture group. CONCLUSIONS: Low quality evidence shows beneficial effect of acupuncture as adjunctive treatment for people mainly with psychogenic ED. Safety of acupuncture was insufficiently reported. The findings should be confirmed in large, rigorously designed and well-reported trials.

Health Problems in Clinical Nurses as Identified by Auricular Acupuncture Points / 산업간호학회지

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to identify health problems in clinical nurses through an examination of their auricular acupuncture points. METHODS: Data were collected from 90 nurses working in D city. Participants' ears were photographed and their auricular points were analyzed. Data analysis was performed by descriptive statistics and the χ2 test. RESULTS: Musculoskeletal problems were the most severe, followed by problems of the digestive, nervous, and reproductive systems, in that order. Furthermore, the average number of health problems was 5.22, with a range of 4 to 6. Leg/foot pain was the highest reported musculoskeletal problem, followed by shoulder and lumbar/back pain. Gastric ptosis was the highest reported digestive problem, followed by indigestion and hypersensitive colitis. Additionally, among participants with gastric ptosis, lumbar pain was significantly high. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that further research using an auricular points as a diagnosis and treatment point is necessary to improve the health of nurses.

Identification and Analysis of Compound Profiles of Sinisan Based on 'Individual Herb, Herb-Pair, Herbal Formula' before and after Processing Using UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS Coupled with Multiple Statistical Strategy.

Sinisan has been widely used to treat depression. However, its pharmacologically-effective constituents are largely unknown, and the pharmacological effects and clinical efficacies of Sinisan-containing processed medicinal herbs may change. To address these important issues, we developed an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization tandem quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) method coupled with multiple statistical strategies to analyze the compound profiles of Sinisan, including individual herb, herb-pair, and complicated Chinese medicinal formula. As a result, 122 different constituents from individual herb, herb-pair, and complicated Chinese medicinal formula were identified totally. Through the comparison of three progressive levels, it suggests that processing herbal medicine and/or altering medicinal formula compatibility could change herbal chemical constituents, resulting in different pharmacological effects. This is also the first report that saikosaponin h/i and saikosaponin g have been identified in Sinisan.

Digital soil mapping in the Bara district of Nepal using kriging tool in ArcGIS.

Digital soil mapping has been widely used to develop statistical models of the relationships between environmental variables and soil attributes. This study aimed at determining and mapping the spatial distribution of the variability in soil chemical properties of the agricultural floodplain lands of the Bara district in Nepal. The study was carried out in 23 Village Development Committees with 12,516 ha total area, in the southern part of the Bara district. A total of 109 surface soil samples (0 to 15 cm depth) were collected and analyzed for pH, organic matter (OM), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P, expressed as P2O5), potassium (K, expressed as K2O), zinc (Zn), and boron (B) status. Descriptive statistics showed that most of the measured soil chemical variables (other than pH and P2O5) were skewed and non-normally distributed and logarithmic transformation was then applied. A geostatistical tool, kriging, was used in ArcGIS to interpolate measured values for those variables and several digital map layers were developed based on each soil chemical property. Geostatistical interpolation identified a moderate spatial variability for pH, OM, N, P2O5, and a weak spatial variability for K2O, Zn, and B, depending upon the use of amendments, fertilizing methods, and tillage, along with the inherent characteristics of each variable. Exponential (pH, OM, N, and Zn), Spherical (K2O and B), and Gaussian (P2O5) models were fitted to the semivariograms of the soil variables. These maps allow farmers to assess existing farm soils, thus allowing them to make easier and more efficient management decisions and maintain the sustainability of productivity.