Conociendo las propiedades del Eucalipto, ¿un alivio para la tos? / Knowing the properties of Eucalyptus, ¿a cough relief?

El eucalipto se ha empleado popularmente para tratar afecciones respiratorias. Muchas veces en nuestras consultas como médicos de familia, los pacientes con problemas respiratorios nos preguntan sobre esta práctica y sus efectos en la salud. Por esto, decidimos hacer una búsqueda de la evidencia disponible. Luego de realizar una búsqueda bibliográfica y seleccionar la evidencia más reciente y de mejor calidad, podemos decir, que el eucalipto tuvo un efecto estadísticamente significativo en comparación con el placebo en cuanto a los síntomas relacionados con la tos como así también en su frecuencia. Igualmente, concluimos que estos efectos del eucalipto sobre la tos en procesos respiratorios agudos, deberían tomarse con precaución, siempre informando a nuestros pacientes sobre la evidencia actual limitada disponible, sin olvidar las creencias de cada persona para la toma de decisiones (AU)

Eucalyptus has been popularly used to treat respiratory conditions. Many times in our consultations as family doctors, patients with respiratory problems ask us about this practice and its effects on health. For this reason, we decided to do a search of the available evidence. After conducting a literature search and selecting the most recent and best-quality evidence, we can say that eucalyptus had a statistically significant effect compared to placebo in terms of cough-related symptoms as well as their frequency . Likewise, we conclude that these effects of eucalyptus on coughing in acute respiratory processes should be taken with caution, always informing our patients about the limited current evidence available, without forgetting each person's beliefs for decision-making (AU)

[Protection by some plant methanol extracts of cherry tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum var. Cerasiforme) from fungic infection by Alternaria alternata]. / Utilisation d'extraits méthanoliques de plantes pour la protection des cultures de tomates-cerises (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) contre l'infection fongique par Alternaria alternata.

Cherry tomato is very susceptible to fungal infections that can cause considerable damage in crops and during storage. Alternaria infection is one of the most common and dangerous alterations for this fruit. They are caused by Alternaria alternata or some other species belonging to the same genus. In this work, we tested the antifungal activity of methanol extracts from five plants harvested in the region of Jijel (Algeria) on A. alternata. The activity was first tested in vitro and then on greenhouse cherry tomato plants: extracts were applied to healthy plants before infection in order to test their preventive action, and after infection to determine whether they are able to knock out Alternaria. Results showed that Rosmarinus officinalis and Lavandula angustifolia extracts were the most active in vitro on A. alternata. Microscopic observations of the mold indicated that these extracts inhibited the dictyospores production. The antifungal activity tested on the plants grown in greenhouse revealed that R. officinalis extract still was the most active. Extracts of L. angustifolia and Punica granatum did not protect the plants from Alternaria infection, but provided a total cure at the end of the treatment. Extracts from Quercus suber and Eucalyptus globulus were the least active. They did not bestow any protection nor complete healing of the plants. Dictyospores counting on fruits at the end of the treatment confirmed the results obtained for the greenhouse crops.

TITLE: Utilisation d'extraits méthanoliques de plantes pour la protection des cultures de tomates-cerises (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) contre l'infection fongique par Alternaria alternata. ABSTRACT: La tomate-cerise est un fruit très sujet aux infections fongiques qui peuvent causer des dégâts considérables dans les cultures et lors de la conservation. Les alternarioses comptent parmi les altérations les plus répandues et dangereuses pour ce fruit. Elles sont causées par Alternaria alternata ou d'autres espèces appartenant au même genre. Dans ce travail, nous avons testé l'activité antifongique d'extraits méthanoliques de cinq plantes récoltées dans la région de Jijel (Algérie) sur A. alternata. L'activité a d'abord été testée in vitro, puis sur des plants de tomates-cerises cultivés sous serre : les extraits ont été appliqués sur des plants sains, avant l'infection, afin de tester leur action préventive, et après l'infection pour déterminer s'ils sont capables de traiter l'alternariose. Les résultats ont montré que les extraits de Rosmarinus officinalis et Lavandula angustifolia étaient les plus actifs in vitro sur A. alternata. L'observation microscopique de la moisissure a indiqué que ces extraits agissaient en inhibant sa production de dictyospores. L'activité antifongique testée sur les plants cultivés sous serre a révélé que l'extrait de R. officinalis était toujours le plus actif. Venaient ensuite les extraits de L. angustifolia et Punica granatum qui n'ont pas permis la protection des plants contre l'alternariose, mais qui ont néanmoins donné une guérison totale à la fin du traitement. Les extraits de Quercus suber et Eucalyptus globulus étaient les moins actifs. Ils n'ont permis ni la prévention, ni la guérison complète des plants. Le comptage des dictyospores réalisé sur les fruits à la fin du traitement a confirmé les résultats obtenus pour les cultures sous serre.

Impact of phosphorus application on drought resistant responses of Eucalyptus grandis seedlings.

Eucalyptus grandis is the most widely planted tree species worldwide and can face severe drought during the initial months after planting because the root system is developing. A complete randomized design was used to study the effects of two water regimes (well-watered and water-stressed) and phosphorus (P) applications (with and without P) on the morphological and physio-biochemical responses of E. grandis. Drought had negative effects on the growth and metabolism of E. grandis, as indicated by changes in morphological traits, decreased net photosynthetic rates (Pn ), pigment concentrations, leaf relative water contents (LRWCs), nitrogenous compounds, over-production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and higher lipid peroxidation. However, E. grandis showed effective drought tolerance strategies, such as reduced leaf area and transpiration rate (E), higher accumulation of soluble sugars and proline and a strong antioxidative enzyme system. P fertilization had positive effects on well-watered seedlings due to improved growth and photosynthesis, which indicated the high P requirements during the initial E. grandis growth stage. In drought-stressed seedlings, P application had no effects on the morphological traits, but it significantly improved the LRWC, Pn , quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv /Fm ), chlorophyll pigments, nitrogenous compounds and reduced lipid peroxidation. P fertilization improved E. grandis seedling growth under well-watered conditions but also ameliorated some leaf physiological traits under drought conditions. The effects of P fertilization are mainly due to the enhancement of plant N nutrition. Therefore, P can be used as a fertilizer to improve growth and production in the face of future climate change.

Phosphorus application reduces aluminum toxicity in two Eucalyptus clones by increasing its accumulation in roots and decreasing its content in leaves.

Under acidic conditions, aluminum (Al) toxicity is an important factor limiting plant productivity; however, the application of phosphorus (P) might alleviate the toxic effects of Al. In this study, seedlings of two vegetatively propagated Eucalyptus clones, E. grandis × E. urophylla 'G9' and E. grandis × E. urophylla 'DH32-29'were subjected to six treatments (two levels of Al stress and three levels of P). Under excessive Al stress, root Al content was higher, whereas shoot and leaf Al contents were lower with P application than those without P application. Further, Al accumulation was higher in the roots, but lower in the shoots and leaves of G9 than in those of DH32-29. The secretion of organic acids was higher under Al stress than under no Al stress. Further, under Al stress, the roots of G9 secreted more organic acids than those of DH32-29. With an increase in P supply, Al-induced secretion of organic acids from roots decreased. Under Al stress, some enzymes, including PEPC, CS, and IDH, played important roles in organic acid biosynthesis and degradation. Thus, our results indicate that P can reduce Al toxicity via the fixation of elemental Al in roots and restriction of its transport to stems and leaves, although P application cannot promote the secretion of organic acid anions. Further, the higher Al-resistance of G9 might be attributed to the higher Al accumulation in and organic acid anion secretion from roots and the lower levels of Al in leaves.

Plant species differ in early seedling growth and tissue nutrient responses to arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi.

Experiments with plant species that can host both arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) are important to separating the roles of fungal type and plant species and understanding the influence of the types of symbioses on plant growth and nutrient acquisition. We examined the effects of mycorrhizal fungal type on the growth and tissue nutrient content of two tree species (Eucalyptus grandis and Quercus costaricensis) grown under four nutrient treatments (combinations of low versus high nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) with different N:P ratios) in the greenhouse. Trees were inoculated with unidentified field mixtures of AMF or EMF species cultivated on root fragments of AMF- or EMF-specific bait plants. In E. grandis, inoculation with both AMF and EMF positively affected belowground plant dry weight and negatively affected aboveground dry weight, while only inoculation with AMF increased tissue nutrient content. Conversely, Q. costaricensis dry weight and nutrient content did not differ significantly among inoculation treatments, potentially due to its dependence on cotyledon reserves for growth. Mineral nutrition of both tree species differed with the ratio of N to P applied while growth did not. Our results demonstrate that both tree species' characteristics and the soil nutrient environment can affect how AMF and EMF interact with their host plants. This research highlights the importance of mycorrhizal fungal-tree-soil interactions during early seedling growth and suggests that differences between AMF and EMF associations may be crucial to understanding forest ecosystem functioning.

Effects of salinity on leaf breakdown: Dryland salinity versus salinity from a coalmine.

Salinization of freshwater ecosystems as a result of human activities represents a global threat for ecosystems' integrity. Whether different sources of salinity with their differing ionic compositions lead to variable effects in ecosystem functioning is unknown. Therefore, the present study assessed the impact of dryland- (50µS/cm to 11,000µS/cm) and coalmine-induced (100µS/cm to 2400µS/cm) salinization on the leaf litter breakdown, with focus on microorganisms as main decomposer, in two catchments in New South Wales, Australia. The breakdown of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves decreased with increasing salinity by up to a factor of three. Coalmine salinity, which is characterised by a higher share of bicarbonates, had a slightly but consistently higher breakdown rate at a given salinity relative to dryland salinity, which is characterised by ionic proportions similar to sea water. Complementary laboratory experiments supported the stimulatory impact of sodium bicarbonates on leaf breakdown when compared to sodium chloride or artificial sea salt. Furthermore, microbial inoculum from a high salinity site (11,000µS/cm) yielded lower leaf breakdown at lower salinity relative to inoculum from a low salinity site (50µS/cm). Conversely, inoculum from the high salinity site was less sensitive towards increasing salinity levels relative to inoculum from the low salinity site. The effects of the different inoculum were the same regardless of salt source (sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride and artificial sea salt). Finally, the microorganism-mediated leaf litter breakdown was most efficient at intermediate salinity levels (≈500µS/cm). The present study thus points to severe implications of increasing salinity intensities on the ecosystem function of leaf litter breakdown, while the underlying processes need further scrutiny.

Hydrogel control of water uptake by pectins during in vitro pollen hydration of Eucalyptus globulus.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Upon pollination, dehydrated pollen grains take water out of the stigma surface, an event that constitutes the first functional checkpoint of sexual reproduction in higher plants. Little is known about possible functional connections between rehydration speed and further steps of fertilization. Here we addressed the mechanisms of water uptake control by dehydrated pollen grains. Because dehydrated cells have no energy-driven active mechanism such as membrane-based osmoregulation for controlling water movement, we tested the hypothesis that another mechanism might exist, namely, the use of hydrogel-behaving molecules. METHODS: We developed an imaging protocol to visualize and quantify the rate of water entry into pollen grains of Eucalyptus globulus and tested the influence of different treatments linked to hydrogel-behaving molecules. We complemented these analyses by immunostaining pectins in the pollen grain with monoclonal antibodies JIM5 and JIM7. KEY RESULTS: Water entry seemed to proceed exclusively through the germination apertures of the pollen grain, and the changes observed in different hydration media are compatible with hydrogel behavior. When JIM5 and JIM7 were used to characterize pectins on the germination apertures during hydration, pectin localization and esterification changed during hydration and were affected by the hydration solutions. These results suggest that chemical modification of the pectins may change their hydrogel behavior, thus modifying the hydration speed. CONCLUSIONS: The hydrogel behavior of pectins and pectin localization on apertures strongly suggest that pectins act like "valves" for water entry, enabling a regulated process of water uptake into the dehydrated pollen grain. We propose that this regulation evolved in terms of achieving the correct self-organization of molecules and cellular components to resume metabolism and pollen tube growth, especially in species that are subject to demanding environmental water stress.

Model-data synthesis for the next generation of forest free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments.

The first generation of forest free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments has successfully provided deeper understanding about how forests respond to an increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Located in aggrading stands in the temperate zone, they have provided a strong foundation for testing critical assumptions in terrestrial biosphere models that are being used to project future interactions between forest productivity and the atmosphere, despite the limited inference space of these experiments with regards to the range of global ecosystems. Now, a new generation of FACE experiments in mature forests in different biomes and over a wide range of climate space and biodiversity will significantly expand the inference space. These new experiments are: EucFACE in a mature Eucalyptus stand on highly weathered soil in subtropical Australia; AmazonFACE in a highly diverse, primary rainforest in Brazil; BIFoR-FACE in a 150-yr-old deciduous woodland stand in central England; and SwedFACE proposed in a hemiboreal, Pinus sylvestris stand in Sweden. We now have a unique opportunity to initiate a model-data interaction as an integral part of experimental design and to address a set of cross-site science questions on topics including responses of mature forests; interactions with temperature, water stress, and phosphorus limitation; and the influence of biodiversity.

Effect of the addition of calcium hydroxide on the hydrothermal-mechanochemical treatment of Eucalyptus.

The effect of Ca(OH)2 addition on optimization of hydrothermal-mechanochemical pretreatment, which combines hydrothermal and milling treatments, was examined. The highest glucose yield of 90% was achieved in the ball-milled specimen previously treated at 170°C in the presence of 20% Ca(OH)2 per substrate weight. The specific surface area of the substrate was closely correlated with glucose yield, and a larger specific surface area was obtained when treating the specimen at 170°C in the presence of Ca(OH)2 compared to treatment at 170°C without Ca(OH)2. Although the Ca(OH)2-treated specimen was relatively unaffected by delignification, the cleavage of the ester bonds between lignin and hemicellulose was confirmed by FT-IR. This suggests that Ca(OH)2 weakens the substrate structure by loosening the bonds between lignin and hemicellulose as the mechanism to increase the specific surface area regardless of the high lignin content, facilitating the fibrillation of fibers with mechanical milling.

Ecto- and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis can induce tolerance to toxic pulses of phosphorus in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) seedlings.

In common with many plants native to low P soils, jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) develops toxicity symptoms upon exposure to elevated phosphorus (P). Jarrah plants can establish arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associations, along with a non-colonizing symbiosis described recently. AM colonization is known to influence the pattern of expression of genes required for P uptake of host plants and our aim was to investigate this phenomenon in relation to P sensitivity. Therefore, we examined the effect on hosts of the presence of AM and ECM fungi in combination with toxic pulses of P and assessed possible correlations between the induced tolerance and the shoot P concentration. The P transport dynamics of AM (Rhizophagus irregularis and Scutellospora calospora), ECM (Scleroderma sp.), non-colonizing symbiosis (Austroboletus occidentalis), dual mycorrhizal (R. irregularis and Scleroderma sp.), and non-mycorrhizal (NM) seedlings were monitored following two pulses of P. The ECM and A. occidentalis associations significantly enhanced the shoot P content of jarrah plants growing under P-deficient conditions. In addition, S. calospora, A. occidentalis, and Scleroderma sp. all stimulated plant growth significantly. All inoculated plants had significantly lower phytotoxicity symptoms compared to NM controls 7 days after addition of an elevated P dose (30 mg P kg(-1) soil). Following exposure to toxicity-inducing levels of P, the shoot P concentration was significantly lower in R. irregularis-inoculated and dually inoculated plants compared to NM controls. Although all inoculated plants had reduced toxicity symptoms and there was a positive linear relationship between rank and shoot P concentration, the protective effect was not necessarily explained by the type of fungal association or the extent of mycorrhizal colonization.

Addition of alkali to the hydrothermal-mechanochemical treatment of Eucalyptus enhances its enzymatic saccharification.

The effects of alkali on hydrothermal-mechanochemical treatment (hydrothermal treatment combined with wet-milling) were examined with the aim of improving pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass before enzymatic saccharification. After enzymatic saccharification, the highest glucose yield was obtained by autoclaving at 170°C in the presence of 20% NaOH per substrate weight. The wood fiber was unraveled into finer nanofibers by hydrothermal-mechanochemical treatment, thus increasing the specific surface area of the substrate from 11 to 132m(2)/g. Adding 20% NaOH to the treatment further increased the specific surface area of the already fibrillated substrate by 76% (232m(2)/g) due to lignin removal and ester bond cleavage between lignin and hemicellulose. This increase in specific surface area was closely related to the increase in enzymatic digestibility; therefore, NaOH addition may have enhanced the effect of hydrothermal-mechanochemical treatment.

Identification of a hydrolyzable tannin, oenothein B, as an aluminum-detoxifying ligand in a highly aluminum-resistant tree, Eucalyptus camaldulensis.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis is a tree species in the Myrtaceae that exhibits extremely high resistance to aluminum (Al). To explore a novel mechanism of Al resistance in plants, we examined the Al-binding ligands in roots and their role in Al resistance of E. camaldulensis. We identified a novel type of Al-binding ligand, oenothein B, which is a dimeric hydrolyzable tannin with many adjacent phenolic hydroxyl groups. Oenothein B was isolated from root extracts of E. camaldulensis by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry analyses. Oenothein B formed water-soluble or -insoluble complexes with Al depending on the ratio of oenothein B to Al and could bind at least four Al ions per molecule. In a bioassay using Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), Al-induced inhibition of root elongation was completely alleviated by treatment with exogenous oenothein B, which indicated the capability of oenothein B to detoxify Al. In roots of E. camaldulensis, Al exposure enhanced the accumulation of oenothein B, especially in EDTA-extractable forms, which likely formed complexes with Al. Oenothein B was localized mostly in the root symplast, in which a considerable amount of Al accumulated. In contrast, oenothein B was not detected in three Al-sensitive species, comprising the Myrtaceae tree Melaleuca bracteata, Populus nigra, and Arabidopsis. Oenothein B content in roots of five tree species was correlated with their Al resistance. Taken together, these results suggest that internal detoxification of Al by the formation of complexes with oenothein B in roots likely contributes to the high Al resistance of E. camaldulensis.

Integration of a kraft pulping mill into a forest biorefinery: pre-extraction of hemicellulose by steam explosion versus steam treatment.

Growing interest in alternative and renewable energy sources has brought increasing attention to the integration of a pulp mill into a forest biorefinery, where other products could be produced in addition to pulp. To achieve this goal, hemicelluloses were extracted, either by steam explosion or by steam treatment, from Eucalyptus globulus wood prior to pulping. The effects of both pre-treatments in the subsequent kraft pulping and paper strength were evaluated. Results showed a similar degree of hemicelluloses extraction with both options (32-67% of pentosans), which increased with the severity of the conditions applied. Although both pre-treatments increased delignification during pulping, steam explosion was significantly better: 12.9 kappa number vs 22.6 for similar steam unexploded pulps and 40.7 for control pulp. Finally, similar reductions in paper strength were found regardless of the type of treatment and conditions assayed, which is attributed to the increase of curled and kinked fibers.

Effect of hydrothermal pretreatment on properties of bio-oil produced from fast pyrolysis of eucalyptus wood in a fluidized bed reactor.

Eucalyptus wood powder was first subjected to hydrothermal pretreatment in a high-pressure reactor at 160-190°C, and subsequently fast pyrolyzed in a fluidized bed reactor at 500°C to obtain high quality bio-oil. This study focused on investigating effect of hydrothermal pretreatment on bio-oil properties. Hemicellulose and some metals were effectively removed from eucalyptus wood, while cellulose content was enhanced. No significant charring and carbonization of constituents was observed during hydrothermal pretreatment. Thus pretreated eucalyptus wood gave higher bio-oil yield than original eucalyptus wood. Chemical composition of bio-oil was examined by GC/MS and (13)C NMR analyses. Bio-oil produced from pretreated eucalyptus wood exhibited lower contents of ketones and acids, while much higher levoglucosan content than bio-oil produced from original eucalyptus wood, which would help to improve thermal stability of bio-oil and extract levoglucosan from bio-oil. Hydrothermal pretreatment also improved bio-oil fuel quality through lowering water content and enhancing heating value.

Enzymatic saccharification of woody biomass micro/nanofibrillated by continuous extrusion process II: effect of hot-compressed water treatment.

An extrusion process involving a twin-screw extruder was used for the micro/nanofibrillation of Douglas fir and Eucalyptus treated with hot-compressed water (HCW). Partial removal of hemicellulose and lignin by HCW treatment effectively improved the fibrillation by extrusion. Only HCW treatment produced glucose less than 5 weight percent (wt.%) in Douglas fir in a temperature range of 140-180 degrees C by enzymatic hydrolysis. Glucose production yields of 18 and 26 wt.% were obtained by HCW treatment at 170 and 180 degrees C, respectively, in Eucalyptus. Use of extrusion after HCW treatment drastically improved monosaccharide production yield in both woods. In the case of Douglas fir, the obtained values were 5 times higher than those obtained by HCW treatment alone. Total monosaccharide production yields were higher in Eucalyptus than in Douglas fir. The extruded production had a fine fibrous morphology on a sub-micro/nanoscopic scale. This result shows the great potential of the extrusion process after HCW treatment as a cost-effective pretreatment for enzymatic saccharification of woody biomass.

Nutrient status and plant growth effects of forest soils in the Basin of Mexico.

The nutrient status of forest soils in the Mexico City Air Basin was evaluated by observing plant growth responses to fertilization with N, P or both nutrients combined. P deficiency was the most frequent condition for soil from two high pollution sites and N deficiency was greatest at a low N deposition site. Concentrations of Pb and Ni, and to a lesser extent Zn and Co, were higher at the high pollution sites. However, positive plant growth responses to P and sometimes to N, and results of wheat root elongation bioassays, suggest that heavy metal concentrations were not directly phytotoxic. Further studies are needed to determine if heavy metal toxicity to mycorrhizal symbionts of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) from high pollution sites may explain the P deficiency and stunted growth. P deficiency is expected to limit the capacity for biotic N retention in N saturated forested watersheds in the Basin of Mexico dominated by Andisols.

Nutrient dynamics throughout the rotation of Eucalyptus clonal stands in Congo.

The dynamics of the main nutrient fluxes of the biological cycle were quantified in a clonal Eucalyptus plantation throughout the whole planted crop rotation: current annual requirements of nutrients, uptake from the soil, internal translocations within trees, return to soil (litterfall and crown leaching) and decomposition in the forest floor. As reported for other species, two growth periods were identified in these short-rotation plantations: (1) a juvenile phase up to canopy closure, during which the uptake of nutrients from the soil reserves supplied most of the current requirements; and (2) a second phase up to harvest, characterized by intense nutrient recycling processes. Internal translocation within trees supplied about 30 % of the annual requirements of N and P from 2 years of age onwards, and about 50 % of the K requirement. The mineralization of large amounts of organic matter returned to the soil with litterfall during stand development represented a key process providing nutrients to the stand at the end of the rotation. The importance of the recycling processes was clearly shown by the small amounts of nutrients permanently immobilized in the ligneous components of trees, compared with the total requirements accumulated over the stand rotation which were two to four times higher. Small pools of nutrients circulating quickly in the ecosystem made it possible to produce high amounts of biomass in poor soils. The sustainability of these plantations will require fertilizer inputs that match the changes in soil fertility over successive rotations, mainly linked to the dynamics of organic matter in this tropical soil.

Root hair elongation is inhibited by hypaphorine, the indole alkaloid from the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius, and restored by indole-3-acetic acid.

Hypaphorine, the major indolic compound isolated from the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius, controls the elongation rate of root hairs. At inhibitory concentrations (100 microM), hypaphorine induced a transitory swelling of root hair tips of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ssp. bicostata. When the polar tip growth resumed, a characteristic deformation was still visible on elongating hairs. At higher hypaphorine concentrations (500 microM and greater), root hair elongation stopped, only 15 min after application. However, root hair initiation from trichoblasts was not affected by hypaphorine. Hypaphorine activity could not be mimicked by related molecules such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or tryptophan. While IAA had no activity on root hair elongation, IAA was able to restore the tip growth of root hairs following inhibition by hypaphorine. These results suggest that hypaphorine and endogenous IAA counteract in controlling root hair elongation. During ectomycorrhiza development, the absence of root hairs might be due in part to fungal release of molecules, such as hypaphorine, that inhibit the elongation of root hairs.

Hypaphorine from the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius counteracts activities of indole-3-acetic acid and ethylene but not synthetic auxins in eucalypt seedlings.

Very little is known about the molecules regulating the interaction between plants and ectomycorrhizal fungi during root colonization. The role of fungal auxin in ectomycorrhiza has repeatedly been suggested and questioned, suggesting that, if fungal auxin controls some steps of colonized root development, its activity might be tightly controlled in time and in space by plant and/or fungal regulatory mechanisms. We demonstrate that fungal hypaphorine, the betaine of tryptophan, counteracts the activity of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) on eucalypt tap root elongation but does not affect the activity of the IAA analogs 2,4-D ((2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid) or NAA (1-naphthaleneacetic acid). These data suggest that IAA and hypaphorine interact during the very early steps of the IAA perception or signal transduction pathway. Furthermore, while seedling treatment with 1-amincocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the precursor of ethylene, results in formation of a hypocotyl apical hook, hypaphorine application as well as root colonization by Pisolithus tinctorius, a hypaphorine-accumulating ectomycorrhizal fungus, stimulated hook opening. Hypaphorine counteraction with ACC is likely a consequence of hypaphorine interaction with IAA. In most plant-microbe interactions studied, the interactions result in increased auxin synthesis or auxin accumulation in plant tissues. The P. tinctorius / eucalypt interaction is intriguing because in this interaction the microbe down-regulates the auxin activity in the host plant. Hypaphorine might be the first specific IAA antagonist identified.